1. CONNECTORS A conjunction may be used to indicate the
relationship between the ideas expressed in a
clause and the ideas expressed in the rest of a
sentence.
Examples:
We could go to the library, or we could go to
the park.
He neither finished his homework nor studied
for the test.
I went out because the sun was shining.

2. Coordinate conjunctions
Coordinate conjunctions are used to join two similar
grammatical constructions; for instance, two words,
two phrases or two clauses.
Examples:
My friend and I will attend the meeting.
Austria is famous for the beauty of its landscape and
the hospitality of its people.
The sun rose and the birds began to sing.
In these examples, the coordinate conjunction and is used to join two words/two phrases/and two clauses.

3. and = in addition
She tried and succeeded.
but = however
They tried but did not succeed.
or = alternatively
Did you go out or stay at home?
nor = and neither
I did not see it, nor did they.
(Note the use of inverted word order)
yet = however
The sun is warm, yet the air is cool.

4. Coordinate conjunctions
As illustrated above, when a coordinate
conjunction joins two verbs which have the same
subject, the subject need not be repeated.
For instance, in the example she tried and
succeeded, the pronoun she acts as the subject
for both the verb tried and the verb succeeded.
It should also be noted that when a coordinate
conjunction joins two verbs which do not have
the same subject, the two coordinate clauses
may be separated by a comma or semicolon, in
order to make the meaning clear.

5. Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs, in
order to show the relationship between the
ideas expressed in different parts of a
sentence. For instance, in the following
example, the expression either ... or is used
to indicate that the ideas expressed in the
two clauses represent two alternative choices of action.
Example:
Either you should study harder, or you
should take a different course.

6. Correlative conjunctions
both ... and
He is both intelligent and good-natured.
either ... or
I will either go for a walk or read a book.
neither ... nor
He is neither rich nor famous.
hardly ... when
He had hardly begun to work, when he was interrupted.
if ... then
If that is true, then what happened is not surprising.
(Note that in this construction the word then can usually be omitted.)

7. Correlative conjunctions
no sooner ... than
No sooner had I reached the corner, than the bus came.
not only ... but also
She is not only clever, but also hard-working.
rather ... than
I would rather go swimming than go to the library.
scarcely ... when
Scarcely had we left home, when it started to rain.
whether ... or
Have you decided whether you will come or not?

8. Subordinate conjunctions
Subordinate clauses may begin with
relative pronouns such as that, what,
which, who and whom, as well as with
words such as how, when, where, wherever and why.
Examples:
The house, which stood on a hill, could be
seen for miles.
I wonder how he did that.

9. In addition, subordinate clauses may also begin with words which are commonly referred to as subordinate conjunctions As
1. = because: As he is my friend, I will help him.
2. = when: We watched as the plane took off.
After
1. = later in time: After the train left, we went home.
Although or though
1. = in spite of the fact that: Although it was
after midnight, we did not feel tired.
Before
1. = earlier than: I arrived before the stores
were open.

10. In addition, subordinate clauses may also begin with words which are commonly referred to as subordinate conjunctions
Because
1. = for the reason that: We had to wait, because we arrived early.
For
1. = because: He is happy, for he enjoys his work. If
1. = on condition that:If she is here, we will see her.
Providing or provided
1. = on condition that: All will be well, providing you
are careful.

11. In addition, subordinate clauses may also begin with words which are commonly referred to as subordinate conjunctions
Since
1. = from a past time: I have been here since the sun rose.
2. = as, because: Since you are here, you can help me.
So or so that
1. = consequently: It was raining, so we did not go out.
2. = in order that/purpose: I am saving money so I can buy a bicycle.
Note: When used with the meaning in order that, so
is usually followed by that in formal English.
e.g. I am saving money so that I can buy a bicycle.

12. Supposing
1. = if: Supposing that happens, what will you do?
Than
1. = used in comparisons: He is taller than you are.
Unless
1. = except when, if not: Unless he helps us, we cannot succeed.
Until or till
1. = up to the time when:! I will wait until I hear
from you.

13. Whereas
1. = because: Whereas this is a public building, it is
open to everyone.
2. = on the other hand: He is short, whereas you are tall.
Whether
1. = if: I do not know whether she was invited.
While
1. = at the time when:! While it was snowing, we
played cards.
2. = on the other hand:! He is rich, while his friend is
poor.
3. = although: While I am not an expert, I will do my
best.

14. In addition, the following phrases are often used at the beginning of subordinate clauses.
As if
1.= in a similar way: She talks as if she knows everything.
As long as
1. = if: As long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily.
2. = while: He has lived there as long as I have known him.
As soon as
1.= immediately when: Write to me as soon as you can.
As though
1. = in a similar way: It looks as though there will be a storm.

15. In addition, the following phrases are often used at the beginning of subordinate clauses.
Even if
1. = in spite of a possibility: I am going out even if it rains.
In case
1. = because of a possibility: Take a sweater in case it gets cold.
Or else
1. = otherwise: Please be careful, or else you may have an accident.
So as to
1. = in order to: I hurried so as to be on time.

16. Connecting adverbs
Connecting adverbs are often used to show the relationship
between the ideas expressed in a clause and the ideas
expressed in a preceding clause, sentence or paragraph.
Examples:
I wanted to study; however, I was too tired.
We knew what to expect. Therefore, we were not surprised at
what happened.
In the first example, the connecting adverb however shows
that there is a conflict between the idea expressed in the
clause I was too tired and the idea expressed in the
preceding clause I wanted to study. In the second example,
the connecting adverb therefore shows that there is a cause
and effect relationship between the idea expressed in the
sentence we knew what to expect, and the clause we were
not surprised at what happened.

17. Connecting adverbs b. Connecting adverbs used to connect sentences.
Unlike conjunctions, connecting adverbs may be used in formal English to
show the relationship between ideas expressed in separate sentences.
For example:
The wind was strong. Thus, I felt very cold.
In this example, the connecting adverb thus shows that there is a cause
and effect relationship between the ideas expressed by the two
sentences the wind was strong and I felt very cold.
In informal English, coordinate conjunctions are sometimes used to show
the relationship between the ideas expressed in separate sentences.
The wind was strong. And I felt very cold.
However, this use of coordinate conjunctions is considered to be
grammatically incorrect in formal English.

18. Connecting adverbs c. Position in a clause
A subordinate conjunction must usually be placed at the beginning
of a clause. However, a connecting adverb may be placed at the
beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a clause. This is
illustrated below.
Examples:
His visit was unexpected. Nevertheless, I was pleased to see him.
His visit was unexpected. I was, nevertheless, pleased to see him.
His visit was unexpected. I was pleased to see him, nevertheless.

19. d. Examples of connecting adverbs
The following are examples of words which may be used as connecting adverbs. Each connecting adverb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.
Accordingly = so
He was very persuasive; accordingly, I did what he asked.
Also = in addition
She is my neighbor; she is also my best friend.
Besides = in addition
I like the job. Besides, I need the money.
Consequently = so
She had a fever; consequently, she stayed at home.
Furthermore = in addition
You should stop smoking. Furthermore, you should do it at once!
Hence =! for that reason!
He is a good friend. Hence, I was not embarrassed to ask him for help.

20. d. Examples of connecting adverbs
The following are examples of words which may be used as connecting adverbs. Each connecting adverb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.
However = but
We wanted to arrive on time; however, we were delayed by traffic.
Likewise = in addition
The region is beautiful. Likewise, the climate is excellent.
Moreover = in addition
She is very intelligent; moreover, she is very ambitious.
Nevertheless = but
They are proud. Nevertheless, I like them.
nonetheless = but
The ascent was dangerous. Nonetheless, he decided to attempt it.
otherwise = if not, or else
We should consult them; otherwise, they may be upset.

21. Parallel construction
The repetition of a particular grammatical construction
is often referred to as parallel construction.
Examples:
I am neither angry nor excited.
The resort contains tennis courts, swimming pools and a
snack bar.
In the first example, the two phrases neither angry and nor excited exhibit
parallel construction.
In the second example, the three phrases tennis courts,
swimming pools and a snack bar exhibit parallel construction.

22. Parallel construction
The following example illustrates the use of parallel construction
with the correlative conjunctions neither ... nor.
e.g. Incorrect: She turned neither right nor to the left.
Corrected: She turned neither right nor left. or
Corrected: She turned neither to the right nor to the left.
The first sentence is incorrect, since neither is followed by a
single word; whereas nor is followed by a prepositional phrase.
The second sentence has been corrected by changing the phrase
to the left to the word left. Alternatively, as shown in the third
sentence, two prepositional phrases can be used.

23. Parallel construction
Parallel construction should also be used when listing a series of
ideas.
For example:
Incorrect: The hotel is charming, well-situated and is not expensive.
Corrected: The hotel is charming, well-situated and inexpensive.
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first two items in the
series, charming and well-situated, are adjectives, whereas the
last item, is not expensive, contains a verb.
The second sentence has been corrected by changing is not
expensive to the adjective inexpensive.

24. Parallel construction
The following is another example of the use of parallel
construction when listing a series of ideas.
Incorrect: I like to ski, skating and swimming.
Corrected: I like skiing, skating and swimming.
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first item in
the series, to ski, is an infinitive, whereas the second
and third items, skating and swimming, are gerunds. The
second sentence has been corrected by changing the
infinitive to ski to the gerund skiing.

25. d. Examples of connecting adverbs
The following are examples of words which may be used as connecting adverbs. Each connecting adverb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.
Still = but
It is a long way to the beach. Still, it is a fine day to go swimming.
then:
1. = next, afterwards
We went shopping, then we had lunch.
2. = so
If you are sure, then I must believe you.
Therefore = for that reason
I was nervous; therefore, I could not do my best.
Thus = so, in this way!
He travelled as quickly as possible. Thus, he reached Boston the
next day.