1. Heredity and Prenatal Development
CHAPTER 2
Heredity and Prenatal Development

2. The Influence of Heredity on Development

3. Chromosomes and Genes
Genetics - the field of biology that studies heredity
Fundamental in the transmission of physical traits
Also plays a role in psychological traits
Chromosomes – Rod-shaped structures composed of genes that are found within the nuclei of cells
Gene – The basic unit of heredity. Composed of DNA
Polygenic – Resulting from many genes
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – Genetic material that takes the form of a double helix composed of phosphates, sugars and bases.

4. Identical and Fraternal Twins
Monozygotic (MZ)
- Zygote divides into two cells that separate so that each
develops into an individual with the same genetic makeup.
Dizygotic (DZ)
- Two ova are produced in the same month, each fertilized by a different sperm cell.
Ovulation
- As women reach end of childbearing years, ovulation becomes less regular.
-Results in months when more than one ovum is released
DZ twins run in families;
Chances of a woman bearing twins increases if the woman was a twin, her mother was a twin, or if she has previously borne twins

5. Chromosomal and Genetic Abnormalities
Down syndrome
Caused by an extra chromosome of the 21st pair, resulting in 47 chromosomes
Characteristic features
-rounded face
-protruding tongue
-broad, flat nose
-sloping fold of skin over the inner corners of the eyes
Show deficits in cognitive development and motor development
Usually die from cardiovascular problems by middle age, although modern medicine has extended life appreciably, the probability of having a child with Down’s syndrome increases with the age of the parents

6. Genetic Counseling and Prenatal Testing
Genetic counselors compile information about a couple’s genetic heritage to explore if their children will have a genetic abnormality.
Couples with likelihood of passing on genetic abnormality tend to adopt or not have children of their own.
Prenatal testing can indicate if the embryo or fetus is carrying genetic abnormalities.

7. Amniocentesis Performed on mother 14-16 weeks after conception
Syringe withdraws fluid from the amniotic sac; contains cells sloughed off by fetus
Cells separated, grown in culture, and examined for genetic and chromosomal abnormalities
Routine for women over 35 to detect for Down syndrome; other chromosomal abnormalities increase dramatically as women approach 40
Amniocentesis carries some risk of miscarriage.
Amniocentesis - a procedure for drawing and examining fetal cells sloughed off into amniotic fluid to determine the presence of various disorders
Health professionals would not conduct it just to learn the sex of the child
Miscarriage - the expulsion of an embryo or fetus before it can sustain life on its own, most often due to defective development

8. Chorionic Villus Sampling
Carried out between 9th and 12th week of pregnancy
Syringe inserted through vagina into uterus to suck out threadlike projections (villi) from the outer membrane that covers the amniotic sac and fetus
Results available in days
CVS slightly greater risk than amniocentesis of miscarriage; both increase the risk of miscarriage

9. Ultrasound
Sound waves that are too high in frequency to be heard by human ear obtain information about the fetus
Ultrasound waves are reflected by the fetus; computer uses the information to generate a picture of the fetus
Picture is termed a sonogram
Used to guide the syringe in amniocentesis and CVS by determining the position of the fetus
Used to track growth of fetus, detect multiple pregnancies, detect structural abnormalities

10. Blood Tests
Used to identify sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, and cystic fibrosis
Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) used to detect neural tube defects such as spina bifida and chromosomal abnormalities
Neural tube defects cause elevation in the AFP level in the mother’s blood
Elevated AFP levels related to increased risk of fetal death

11. Heredity and the Environment

12. Heredity and Environment
Inheritance, nutrition, learning, exercise, accident, and illness contribute to development of traits
Genotypes
-Set of traits we inherit from our parents
Phenotypes
-Actual set of traits
-Both genetic and environmental influences
Genotype the genetic form or constitution of a person as determined by heredity
Phenotype the actual form or constitution of a person as determined by heredity and environmental factors

13. Kinship Studies
The more closely people are related, more genes they have in common
Parents and children have 50% genetic overlap
Siblings have 50% genetic overlap
Aunts, uncles have 25% overlap with nieces and nephews; grandparents, 25% overlap with grandchildren
First cousins have 12.5% overlap

14. Twin Studies Monozygotic (MZ) twins share 100% of genes
-MZ twins resemble each other more closely than DZ twins on a number of physical and psychological traits.
-MZ twins more likely to look alike and be similar in height
-MZ twins more likely to share autism, depression, schizophrenia, and vulnerability to alcoholism
Dizygotic (DZ) twins share 50% of genes; same as other siblings
If MZ twins show greater similarity on some trait or behavior than DZ twins do, a genetic basis for the trait or behavior is indicated
MZ twins resemble one another more strongly than DZ twins in intelligence and personality traits.
The MZ twins reared apart are about as similar as MZ twins reared together on measures of intelligence, personality, temperament, occupational and leisure-time interests, and social attitudes.

15. Adoption Studies
Children that are separated from their natural parents at an early age and reared by adoptive parents provide special opportunities for sorting out nature and nurture.
When children who are reared by adoptive parents are nonetheless more similar to their natural parents in a trait, a powerful argument is made for a genetic role in the appearance of that trait.
Examples: Psychological disorders, addiction

16. Conception: Against All Odds

17. Conception Conception refers to the union of an ovum and a sperm cell.
Ova
Women born with all the ova they will ever have, about 400,000
Released from ovarian follicle and enter fallopian tube; 3-4 days later, egg propelled by small, hairlike structures called cilia, and perhaps, by contractions in the wall of the tube
If egg not fertilized, discharged through the uterus and vagina, along with endometrium that had formed to support an embryo, in the menstrual flow; during reproductive years, about 400 ova will ripen and be released

18. Conception (cont’d)
Ova are larger than sperm, barely visible to the eye
Sperm cells develop through stages; sperm with Y sex chromosomes swim faster than sperm with X sex chromosomes.
Male fetuses suffer a higher rate of miscarriage than females, often during the first month of pregnancy.
150 million sperm ejaculated, only 1 in 1,000 can approach an ovum
They each begin with 46 chromosomes, but after meiosis, each sperm has 23 chromosomes, half with X sex chromosomes and half with Y

19. Infertility Infertility problems with men
- Low sperm count (most common)
- Lack of sperm
- Genetic factors
- Environmental poisons
- Diabetes
- Sexually transmitted infections
- Overheating of the testes
- Pressure (e.g., bike seats)
- Aging
- Certain prescription and illicit drugs
Approximately one American couple in six or seven has fertility problems
Sometimes the sperm count is adequate, but other factors such as prostate or hormonal problems deform sperm or deprive them of their motility

20. Infertility (cont’d) Infertility problems with women
- Irregular ovulation, lack of ovulation
- Irregularities among the hormones that govern
ovulation, stress, and malnutrition
- Pelvic inflammatory disorder (PID)
-infection that scars the fallopian tubes and other organs,
impeding the passage of sperm
-Endometriosis
-can obstruct the fallopian tubes

21. Infertility Options Artificial insemination
-Sperm is collected and quick-frozen
-Sperm then injected into woman’s uterus at time of ovulation;
addresses low sperm count as well as low sperm motility
-Can be used for a woman to get pregnant who does not have a partner
In vitro fertilization
-Ripened ova are surgically removed from the mother and
placed in laboratory dish; father’s sperm also placed in dish
-One or more ova fertilized and injected into mother’s uterus to become implanted
-Used when fallopian tubes are blocked or father has low sperm motility
-A donor can be used

22. Infertility Options (cont’d)
Donor IVF
-Mother does not produce ova
-Ovum from another woman is fertilized and injected into the
uterus of the mother-to-be
Surrogate mothers
-Mothers who bring baby to term for other women who are
infertile
-Can be artificially inseminated by partner of infertile woman
Adoption
-Another way for people to obtain children that results in the
formation of loving new families
Clearly, a baby can’t grow in a test tube. “Test-tube” babies are conceived in a laboratory dish and embryos are implanted into the mother’s uterus for gestation.

23. Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD)
Reliable method for selecting the sex of the child prior to implantation
Ova are fertilized in vitro
After a few days of cell division, cell is extracted from each
Sex chromosomal structure of the cell is examined microscopically to determine its sex
Embryos of desired sex are implanted in the woman’s uterus

24. Prenatal Development

25. Prenatal Development
Normal gestation period 280 days; from date of fertilization 266 days
Divided into three periods
1. Germinal stage (Weeks 0 - 2)
2. Embryonic stage (Weeks 3 - 8)
3. Fetal stage (Weeks 9 - Birth)

26. The Germinal Period First two weeks after conception
Creation of the fertilized egg (the zygote)
Cell division
Implantation -- the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall
takes place about 10 to 14 days after conception

27. The Embryonic Period Occurs from two to eight weeks after conception
Rate of cell differentiation intensifies
Every body part eventually develops
Neural tube
Organogenesis -- the process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal development
organs are especially vulnerable to environmental influences

28. The Fetal Period
Fetal period begins two months after conception (normal gestation is weeks)
Three months after conception -- fetus is about 3 inches long; weighs about 3 ounces
By the end of the fifth month, the fetus is about 12 inches long and weighs close to a pound
Vernix
Lanugo
At birth, the average American baby weighs 7½ pounds and is about 20 inches long

29. Three Trimesters
The germinal and embryonic periods occur in the first trimester
The fetal period begins toward the end of the first trimester and continues through the second and third trimesters
Age of Viability (the chances of surviving outside the womb) occurs at the beginning of the third trimester
About weeks after conception

30. Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development
Maternal malnutrition effects
-low birth weight
-prematurity
-retardation of brain development
-cognitive deficiencies
-behavioral problems
-cardiovascular disease
Fetal malnutrition can sometimes be overcome by a supportive, care-giving environment.
Supplementing diets of pregnant women shows positive effects on motor development of infants.
Maternal obesity linked with higher risk of stillbirth
Enriched day-care programs enhance intellectual and social skills by 5 years of age

31. Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development (cont’d)
Women should gain between pounds
-Overweight women may gain less
-Slender women may gain more
Teratogens
-Environmental agents can harm the embryo or fetus
-Includes drugs taken by mother, lead, mercury
Pathogens
-Disease-causing organisms
-Bacteria and viruses

32. Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development (cont’d)
Critical periods refer to the times when organs are developing.
Particular teratogens at a particular time can be harmful to the fetus.
Sexually transmitted infections such as syphilis and HIV/AIDS can affect the development of the fetus.
-Routine blood tests are given early in pregnancy to diagnose syphilis

33. Drugs Taken by the Parents (cont’d)
Alcohol
Heavy alcohol consumption during pregnancy can result in fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS).
FAS babies
-often smaller, with smaller brains
-facial features include widely spaced eyes, underdeveloped upper jaw, flattened nose
Psychological characteristics appear to reflect dysfunction of the brain.
Maladaptive behaviors such as poor judgment, distractibility, and difficulty perceiving social cues are common.

34. Drugs Taken by the Parents (cont’d)
Caffeine
Research regarding caffeine consumption is inconsistent
-Several studies have found that pregnant women who take in a good deal of caffeine are more likely than nonusers to have a miscarriage or a low-birth-weight baby.

35. Drugs Taken by the Parents (cont’d)
Cigarettes
Consist of nicotine, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons (tars)
-Nicotine and carbon monoxide pass through placenta and reach the fetus
-Nicotine stimulates the fetus; long-term effects unknown
-Carbon monoxide decreases amount of oxygen available to the fetus
-Connected with impaired motor development academic delays, learning disabilities, mental retardation, and hyperactivity
Smokers’ babies likely to be smaller than those of nonsmokers
-Babies of smokers more likely to be stillborn or to
die soon after birth
Men who smoke are more likely to produce abnormal sperm.
-Babies of fathers who smoke have higher rates of birth defects, infant mortality, lower birth weights, and cardiovascular problems.

36. Parents’ Age Older fathers more likely to produce abnormal sperm
20’s ideal age for women to bear children
Teenage pregnancy can result in higher incidence of infant mortality and low birth weight.
Stillborn or preterm babies increase as age of mother increases; adequate prenatal care decreases this likelihood even for first-time older mothers.