1. Chapter 13 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
The timing of events in adulthood varies much more from individual to individual than in earlier stages; Compare marriage and beginning career to events of prenatal development. Ask class what some of the events of early adulthood are (leaving home, completing education, beginning full time work, attaining economic independence, establishing long-term romantic relationship, starting family).
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2. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Senescence
Influences:
genetic
lifestyle
environment
historical period
Multidimensional and multidirectional
Average life expectancy has increased 25–30 years over past century
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
By late teens or early 20s, bodies reach their peak levels of fitness and performance.
Asynchronous refers to the fact that different parts of the body and different body systems age at different rates. Also, individual differences in the timing of aging are great.
The historical period could affect the aging process as we make medical advances – for example, we understand the factors that promote a long, healthy life (better sanitation, medical care, nutrition, etc.)
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3. Aging at the Level of DNA and Body Cells
Programmed theories: Genes are “programmed” to cause changes resulting in aging.
Telomeres: a type of DNA at the end of chromosomes that limit the number of times a cell can divide (usually 40-60)
“random” damage theory: DNA is gradually damaged by spontaneous mutations or through external influences that cause mutations. The more damage, the more difficult cell repair and replacement becomes.
Damage may also result in abnormal or cancerous cells
Release of free radicals (naturally occurring, highly reactive chemicals that form in the presence of oxygen) may cause age-related DNA and cellular abnormalities
Biological aging results from a combination of influences. Heritability of longevity is only .2
Telomeres are a type of DNA located at the ends of chromosomes. Each time the cell divides, it loses some of the telomere, until the cell no longer divides. Cells genetically engineered to replace telomere activity will have an extended lifespan.
Free radicals are produced when oxygen breaks down molecules within a cell, stripping away an electron, creating a free radical. The free radical than looks for a replacement from somewhere else, and may destroy nearby cellular material, including DNA, proteins, and fats essential for cell functioning.
Free radicals are thought to be involved in more than 60 disorders of aging, including heart disease, cancer, cataracts, and arthritis. Our bodies do produce some substances that neutralize them, but not enough to completely counteract effects.

4. Aging at the Level of Organs and Tissues
Cross-linkage theory:
Over time, protein fibers that make up the body’s connective tissues form bonds (links) with one another.
As these fibers cross one another, tissue becomes less elastic.
Regular exercise and a vitamin-rich, low fat diet reduce cross linkage.
Gradual failure of the endocrine system
A decline in growth hormone is related to loss of muscle, increase of body fat and thinning of the skin
Declines in immune system functioning
Increase susceptibility to infectious and cardiovascular disease, and cancer.
Fibers which are normally separate become cross linked, resulting in things like loss of flexibility in the skin and other organs, clouding of the lens of the eye, clogging of arteries, and kidney damage.
RE: growth hormone, diet and exercise help control some of the negative effects due to loss of it. Replacing it in people with abnormally low levels has some negative effects.
A COMBINATION OF THEORIES OF AGING PROBABLY BEST EXPLAINS THE PROCESS AT PRESENT.

5. Cardiovascular and Respiratory Changes
Heart:
few resting changes but reduced performance under stress, exercise
hypertension, atherosclerosis
disease declining due to better lifestyle
Lungs:
maximum vital capacity declines after age 25
stiffness makes breathing harder with age
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Cross sectional data have been used to gather this information – Younger cohorts have experienced better health care and nutrition, so changes due to aging may be exaggerated.
Hypertension (high blood pressure) is another important type of hear disease. As the maximum heart rate declines and the heart muscle becomes more rigid, the heart has difficulty delivering oxygen to the body during high activity and then bouncing back from the strain.
If atherosclerosis is present, a person will usually develop it early in life, and it will develop during middle adulthood, eventually causing serious illness. It is determined by multiple factors, but a high fat diet after puberty is particularly damaging.
Like the heart, it is the ability of the respiratory system to work under pressure that declines with age, as respiration rate increases and respiratory volume decreases. Also, connective tissue of the lungs, chest muscles, and ribs stiffen, making it more difficult for lungs to fully expand.
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6. Motor Performance in Adulthood
Athletic skills
peak from the early twenties to early thirties
decline gradually until sixties or seventies, then more rapidly
Continued training
slows loss
retains vital capacity, muscle, response speed
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Changes in motor performance due to biological aging are small (2% per decade). Declines in performance are largely due to decreased practice and motivation, and a less demanding lifestyle.
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7. Aging and 10-km Running Time
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Figure Ten-kilometer running times with advancing age, based on longitudinal performances of hundreds of master athletes
Figure 13.2
(From H. Tanaka & D. R. Seals, 2003, “Dynamic Exercise Performance in Masters Athletes: Insight into the Effects of Primary Human Aging on Physiological Functional Capacity,” Journal of Applied Physiology, 5, p © The American Physiological Society (APS). All rights reserved. Adapted with permission.)
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8. Immune System in Early Adulthood
Declines after age 20:
shrinking thymus: reduced maturity and differentiation of T cells
B cells rely on T cells to function
Stress weakens immune response:
psychological stressors
physical stressors
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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9. Reproductive Capacity
Increase in delayed childbearing
Fertility risks for women:
problems jump sharply at 35–44 years
reduced number, quality of ova
Fertility risks for men:
problems gradual, starting age 35
decreased sperm volume, motility
increased percentage abnormal sperm
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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10. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Variations in Health
U.S. early adulthood death rates exceed other industrialized nations:
extreme obesity
gun-control policies
SES variations:
poverty
lack of universal health care
environmental factors: pollution, crowding, stressors, lack of social support
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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11. Leading Causes of Death in Early Adulthood
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Figure Leading causes of death between 25 and 44 years of age in the United States
Unintentional injuries and homicide become less common causes of death with age, as biological aging contributes to increased risk of diseases such as heart disease and cancer.
Stressful life events, crowding, pollution, health care, diet, exercise, substance use, and access to supportive social relationships explain differences in health over the lifespan.
Figure 13.3
(Adapted from U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2011b.)
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12. Causes of Overweight and Obesity
Heredity
Ethnicity
Declining physical activity
Increase in calorie, sugar, and fat intake over last four decades
Basal metabolic rate declines with age
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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13. Consequences of Obesity
Health problems:
heart disease
diabetes
various forms of cancer
early death
Social discrimination:
finding mates
housing
education, careers
Mistreatment
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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14. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Treating Obesity
Lifestyle changes:
diet
exercise
Record-keeping:
food intake
body weight
Social support
Problem-solving skills
Extended intervention
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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15. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Dietary Fat
Saturated fat from meat and dairy
plays a role in breast and colon cancer and in heart disease
should account for 7% or less of daily calories
Replace saturated fat with unsaturated fat from fish, vegetables
Total fat should account for 30% or less of daily calories
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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16. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Exercise
Over half of Americans are inactive:
more women than men
low SES:
less safe neighborhoods
less social support for exercising
Recommendations:
30 minutes per day of moderately intense physical exercise
increased intensity offers greater health protection
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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17. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Benefits of Exercise
Reduces fat, builds muscle
Boosts immune system, resistance to disease
Cardiovascular benefits
Mental health benefits:
reduces anxiety, depression
enhances cognitive functioning, well-being
Longer life
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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18. Substance Use in Early Adulthood
Peaks at 19–25 years, then declines:
up to 12% of men and 6% of women ages 19–25 are substance abusers
cigarettes, alcohol are most common
drugs:
marijuana
stimulants
prescription drugs
party drugs
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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19. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Cigarette Smoking
About 19% of U.S. adults smoke cigarettes:
numbers slowly declining
fewer college graduates; more college students, high school dropouts
more men, but gender gap shrinking
Deadly health risks
Hard to quit: most treatment programs do not use effective strategies
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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20. Alcohol Abuse in Early Adulthood
10% of men, 3% of women are heavy drinkers
About one-third of heavy drinkers are alcoholics
Genetic, cultural factors in alcoholism
Causes mental, physical problems
High costs to society
Treatment is difficult: half relapse in a few months
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
In men, alcoholism usually begins in teens and early twenties; in women, in twenties and thirties. Although genes do contribute to alcoholism, personality characteristics and circumstances contribute as well. Excessive alcohol use is related to liver and cardiovascular disease, inflammation of the pancreas, irritation of the intestinal tract, bone marrow problems, disorders of the blood and joints, some forms of cancer – as well as CNS and sexual impairments. 40% of US highway fatalities involve alcohol and ½ of police arrests in large cities involve alcohol-related offenses.
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21. Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
Most have intercourse by age 25
Most sex in context of a relationship:
70% had only one partner in past year
partners similar to each other
Sex less frequent than media suggest:
only one-third twice a week or more
more often in twenties, declines with age
Most satisfied with their sex lives; only a minority report sexual problems
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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22. Homosexual Attitudes and Behavior
Public acceptance growing: majority say it’s “OK,” support civil liberties, job opportunities
Estimated 3.5% of U.S. population are homosexual or bisexual
Sexual behavior similar to that of heterosexuals
Tend to live in larger cities, college towns
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Like people in heterosexual relationships, people in homosexual relationships are also likely to be similar in education and background, have more sex in committed relationships, and have a modest amount of sex (1/3 of people between 18 and 59 have sex 2X a week, 1/3 a few times a month, and the rest a few times a year or not at all).
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23. Factors Related to Sexual Coercion
Perpetrator Characteristics
Cultural Forces
Manipulative, remorseless
Approve of violence against women
Accept rape myths
Misinterpret social cues
Childhood sexual abuse
Sexual promiscuity
Alcoholism
Men taught to be dominant, competitive
Women taught to be submissive
Acceptance of violence
Dulled sensitivity due to media, pornography
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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24. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Sexual Coercion
Physical injury
STDs
General ill health
Rape: 18 percent of U.S.
women
Perpetrators’ personal characteristics and cultural forces are predictive
Immediate: shock, confusion, withdrawal
Long-term: fatigue, depression, substance abuse, social anxiety, suicidal thoughts
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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25. Preventing and Treating Rape and Abuse
Community services:
underfunded
few for victimized men
Routine screening
Validation of experience
Safety planning
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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26. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Psychological Stress
Related to
social conditions
traumatic experiences, life events
daily hassles
Caused or worsened by low SES
Associated with
overweight and obesity
diabetes
cardiovascular problems
decreased immunity
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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27. Cognitive Changes in Early Adulthood
Piaget:
postformal thought
Perry:
epistemic cognition
Labouvie-Vief:
pragmatic thought
cognitive-affective complexity
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
William Perry (1970, 1981) interviewed students at the end of each of their four years of college asking for “what stood out” during the previous years. According to Perry, younger students divide information, values, and authority into good and bad, right and wrong, we and they. Older college students moving toward relativistic thinking become aware that there are diverse opinions re: any topic. They can respect a person’s reasoning even if they disagree. Perry’s research is based on a highly educated sample but his idea that thinking becomes less dualistic and more relativistic seems reasonable and is echoed in other theories of adult cognitive development.
Labouvie-Vief suggests that adults’ thought changes in these ways:
Thought becomes more pragmatic (logical and practical in solving the problems in everyday life).
Adults accept contradictions as part of everyday life and become aware of multiple truths.
Adults understand that the difference between an ideal world and the real world.
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28. Development of Epistemic Cognition
Dualistic thinking
Relativistic thinking
Commitment within relativistic thinking
Contributing factors:
opportunities to tackle challenging ill-structured problems
peer interaction
metacognition
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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29. Development of Pragmatic Thought
Adulthood brings
increased experience with real-world problems
new ways of thinking that thrive on contradiction and compromise
Increase in cognitive-affective complexity:
greater awareness of one’s own and others’ perspectives
improved emotion regulation
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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30. Age-Related Changes in Cognitive-Affective Complexity
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Figure Changes in cognitive-affective complexity from adolescence to late adulthood
Figure 13.4
(From G. Labouvie-Vief, 2003, “Dynamic Integration: Affect, Cognition, and the Self in Adulthood,” Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, p. 203, copyright © 2003, Sage Publications. Reprinted by permission of SAGE Publications.)
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31. Expertise and Creativity
acquisition of extensive knowledge in a field
takes many years
enhances information processing
Essential for creativity:
move to problem finding
10-year rule
rise in creative productivity in early adulthood
requires multiple personal qualities
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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32. The College Experience
Formative, influential “developmental testing ground”
Exposure to new ideas, beliefs, and demands fosters diverse cognitive capacities:
reasoning about ill-structured problems
broader attitudes and values
Depends on participation in campus life
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
The US enrolls a higher proportion of graduates in institutions of higher education than any other nation.
The type of college a student attends makes little difference in terms of cognitive development (students who initially enroll in a 2 year vs. a 4 year college show no difference in cognitive development.
Students who drop out make less money and show less advanced personal development throughout their lives.
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33. Dropping Out of College
U.S. dropout rates:
44% at two-year schools
32% at four-year schools
Personal factors:
preparation, motivation, skills
financial problems, low SES
Institutional factors:
few support services
Early support crucial
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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34. Periods of Vocational Development
Fantasy period
Tentative period
Realistic period:
exploration
crystallization
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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35. Factors Influencing Vocational Choice
Personality
Family influences:
parent–child vocational similarity
Teachers
Gender stereotypes:
gender-role conformity diminishing slowly
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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