1. Physical Geology
Chapter 6

2. Part 1
The Rock Cycle

3. Rocks are solid pieces of the earth of any size
Rocks are solid pieces of the earth of any size. They can be made up of one or more minerals, or they can be made up of solid organic matter.

4. 3 Types by Origin
Igneous – “from fire”; forms by cooling of magma or lava
Sedimentary – formed from compaction and cementation of rock fragments (sediments)
Metamorphic – “changed form”; from alteration of existing rock by heat, pressure and time

5. Rock Cycle

6. Igneous may become sedimentary, metamorphic, or igneous
Sedimentary may become metamorphic, igneous, or sedimentary
Metamorphic may become igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic

7. Rock Properties
Bowen’s Reaction Series – As magma cools, certain minerals tend to crystallize first. As they form out, they remove certain elements from the magma, which changes the composition of it. Thus different minerals form at different times during the cooling and solidification, and they generally always form in the same order.

8. The Canadian geologist N. L
The Canadian geologist N.L. Bowen found that minerals tend to form in specific sequences in igneous rocks, and these sequences could be assembled into a composite sequence.
                                                                                          

9. In Summary

10. Chemical Stability Tendency to maintain original chemical composition
Based on strength of chemical bonds
Highest # of bonds between Si and O are most resistant

11. Physical Stability Reduced by zones of weakness Layer joints
Joints between crystalline formations
Joints and fractures from release of formative pressures

12. Part 2
Igneous Rock

13. Magma is melted rock below the surface; liquid or fluid
Melting depends upon
Temperature
Pressure
Presence of fluids
Melt temperature depends upon the chemical composition of the rock
Pressure heightens melting point; release lowers
Fluids decrease some melting points

14. Partial Melting Different components have different melting points
As each melts, magma composition of the magma is altered
Opposite effect of Bowens Series

15. Fractional Crystallization
Opposite of partial melting
Minerals crystallize and change makeup of magma chemically
In same order as Bowens Series
Longer formation time = larger crystals
Shorter time = smaller crystals
Inner/outer crystals may be different due to differences in the magma as time goes by

16. Igneous Rock Textures
Coarse grained – slow loss of heat by subsurface magma results in large, well-developed crystals (rough granite)

17. Igneous Rock Textures
Fine grained – rapid heat loss from superficial lava results in small, poorly developed crystals (smooth basalt)

18. Igneous Rock Textures
Porphyritic – magma cools somewhat slowly, then speeds up near or on surface resulting in a mixed appearance/texture

19. Igneous Rock Textures
Glassy – viscous magma cools quickly with few dissolved gases forming few, if any crystals
Obsidian

20. Igneous Rock Textures
Vesicular - viscous magma cools quickly with a lot of dissolved gases forming few, if any crystals, but many bubbles (vesicles)
Pumice

21. Igneous Rock Composition
Felsic – lots of silica; light color; has minerals feldspar, mica and quartz; e.g., granite, rhyolite, obsidian, pumice
Mafic – rich in Fe and Mg; dark color; minerals pl feldspar, pyroxene, ferromagnesians (hornblende); e.g., basalt and gabbro
Intermediate – intermediate silica content;plagioclase, hornblende,pyroxene, and biotite; e.g., diorite and andesite

22. Igneous Rock Composition
Felsic – lots of feldspar (fel); lots of silica (sic)
Mafic – rich in Fe (f) and Mg (Ma) or ferromagnesians
Intermediate – intermediate blend

23. Intrusive formations
batholith

24. Extrusive formations

25. Some uses of Igneous rock:
GRANITE: An igneous-plutonic rock, medium to coarse-grained that is high in silica, potassium, sodium and quartz but low in calcium, iron and magnesium. It is widely used for architectural construction, ornamental stone and monuments.
PUMICE: An igneous-volcanic rock, it is a porous, brittle variety of rhyolite and is light enough to float. It is formed when magma of granite composition erupts at the earth’s surface or intrudes the crust at shallow depths. It is used as an abrasive material in hand soaps, emery boards, etc.
GABBRO: An igneous-plutonic rock, generally massive, but may exhibit a layered structure produced by successive layers of different mineral composition. It is widely used as crushed stone for concrete aggregate, road metal, railroad ballast, etc. Smaller quantities are cut and polished for dimension stone (called black granite).
BASALT: An igneous volcanic rock, dark gray to black, it is the volcanic equivalent of plutonic gabbro and is rich in ferromagnesian minerals. Basalt can be used in aggregate.

26. Practice questions for igneous rocks

27. Part 3
Sedimentary Rock

28. Beginnings - sediments

29. ……then…..

30. Lithification in this case means compaction (squeezed together tightly reducing pore space) and cementation (glued together by chemicals in the water) of the sediments into rock

31. Classes by origin
Chemical
Organic
Clastic

32. Chemical Dissolved minerals
Precipitate to layers as evaporites or chemical reaction products
Examples: halite, gypsum
Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah

34. Organic Remains of living things Heavy deposits
Examples: coal, chalk and organic limestone

36. Clastic Imported fragments that are lithified By fragment size
Conglomerate (breccia) – large fragments cemented by small
Sandstone – quartz fragments (sand)
Shale – clay sized fragments usually compacted into flat layers

37. C l a s t I c

38. Characteristics of Clastic Sediments
Sorting – tendency of currents to separate sediments according to size
Angularity – collisions during movement of particles tends to round them off. Little movement = angular; more movement = more rounded/smooth; great movement = most rounded/smooth particles

40. Angularity Patterns very angular angular sub-angular rounded
           
very angular
         
angular
sub-angular
        
rounded
       
well-rounded
Angularity Patterns

41. Sedimentary Rock Features
Stratification
Cross bedding
Graded bedding
Ripple marks
Mud cracks
Fossils
Concretions

42. Stratification – in layers or beds

43. Cross beds – slanting layers

44. Graded beds – bed of sediments assorted by size

45. Ripple marks & Mud cracks

46. Fossils

47. Concretions and geodes

48. Sedimentary rocks have great economic importance -
Oil, natural gas, coal, and uranium, our major energy resources, are formed in and come from sedimentary rocks.
Sand and gravel for construction come from sediment.
Sandstone and limestone are used for building stone.
Rock gypsum is used to make plaster.
Limestone is used to make cement.
Salt is used for flavoring.
Phosphate-bearing sedimentary rocks are used for fertilizer.
Quartz sand is used to make glass.

49. Practice questions on sedimentary rocks

50. Part 4
Metamorphic Rock

51. Metamorphism
The process by which heat, pressure, or chemical processes change one type of rock into another
Change into other minerals
Change in size or shape
Separate into bands
Change mineral/chemical composition by addition/subtraction of materials
Most deep within the crust
Contact with hot magma
Regional from heat/pressure of tectonic forces

55. Metamorphic Classification
Foliated
Extreme pressure causes crystals to realign or regrow in parallel bands
Minerals of different compositions separate to produce a series of bands
Non-foliated
No banding
Original rock has basically one mineral so no separation or banding
Original rock has round/square grains that cannot realign when subjected to further stress

56. A rock that contains parallel- or sub-parallel-oriented mineral grains is said to be foliated
                                                                 
Foliation promotes cleavage in rocks (they break easily along parallel planes).
                                   

57. If mineral crystals are disc or pencil shaped, their parallel orientation is easily discernible and the rock is clearly foliated. If all mineral crystals are equant (length, width, and height are equal) there can be no discernible parallel orientation.
Nonfoliated rocks - mineral crystals are equant in shape.
Made of calcite = marble (metamorphosed limestone)
                                         
Made of quartz = quartzite (metamorphosed sandstone)
                                        

58. Uses for metamorphic rocks -
Slate is used to make roofing tiles and in earlier periods of our history was used as "blackboards" in classrooms. As a resource, slate is nonrenewable, but common. Man-made roofing tiles are a suitable substitute.
                   
                                             
Marble is used as a building stone and as ornamental rock, such as for carving statues. As a resource, marble is nonrenewable, but common. Man-made building stones are a suitable substitute.
                                                                

60. Practice questions on metamorphic rock