1. The Commercial North

2. WHY IT MATTERS NOW The states that were once the Northern colonies remain predominantly urban today.

3. Commerce Grows in the North The theory of mercantilism held that colonies existed to help the home country amass wealth. However, the American colonies found their own economy prospering more. From 1650 to 1750, the colonies’ economy grew twice as fast as Great Britain’s economy did.

4. A DIVERSIFIED ECONOMY Unlike farms in the South, those in the New England and middle colonies usually produced several crops instead of a single one. In the more fertile areas of the middle colonies, such as New York and Pennsylvania, farmers raised a variety of crops and livestock, including wheat, corn, cattle, and hogs. A diverse commercial economy also developed in the New England and Middle colonies. Grinding wheat, harvesting fish, and sawing lumber became thriving industries. Colonists also manufactured impressive numbers of ships and quantities of iron. By the mid-1700s, merchants were one of the most powerful groups in the North.

5. URBAN LIFE The expansion in trade caused port cities to grow. Philadelphia was the first large city since ancient Roman times to be laid out on a gridlike street plan. For colonists accustomed to the winding medieval streets of European cities, this kind of rational urban planning must have appeared startling and new. Both the grid plan and the park like square would become important elements of American urban design in the centuries to come.

6. INFLUX OF IMMIGRANTS Northern society was composed of diverse groups with sometimes conflicting interests, like immigrants, African Americans, and women. Northern colonies attracted a variety of immigrants. The Germans and the Scots-Irish were the largest non-English immigrant groups. Other ethnic groups included the Dutch in New York, Scandinavians in Delaware, and Jews in such cities as Newport and Philadelphia. The different groups did not always mix.

7. SLAVERY IN THE NORTH Because raising wheat and corn did not require as much labor as raising tobacco or rice, Northerners had less incentive to turn to slavery. While still considered property, most enslaved persons in New England enjoyed greater legal standing than slaves elsewhere in the colonies. They could sue and be sued, and they had the right of appeal to the highest courts. As in the South, however, enslaved persons in the North led harsh lives and were considered less than human beings. Reacting to the harsh conditions, slaves sometimes rebelled.

8. WOMEN IN NORTHERN SOCIETY A colonial wife had virtually no legal rights. She could not vote. Most women could not enter into contracts, buy or sell property, or keep their own wages if they worked outside the home. Only single women and widows could run their own businesses. In New England, religion as well as law served to keep women under their husbands’ rule. Puritan clergymen insisted that wives must submit to their husbands, saying, “Wives are part of the House and Family, and ought to be under a Husband’s Government: they should Obey their own Husbands.”

9. WITCHCRAFT TRIALS IN SALEM The strict limitations on women’s roles, combined with social tensions, the strained relations with the Native Americans, and religious fanaticism, contributed to one of the most bizarre episodes in American history. In February 1692, several Salem girls accused a West Indian slave woman, Tituba, of practicing witchcraft. In this Puritan New England town of Salem, the girls’ accusations drew a great deal of attention. When the girls accused others of witchcraft, the situation grew out of control, as those who were accused tried to save themselves by naming other “witches.” Hysteria gripped the town as more and more people made false accusations. Many of the accusers were poor and brought charges against richer residents. In addition, a high proportion of victims were women who might be considered too independent. The accusations continued until the girls dared to charge such prominent citizens as the governor’s wife. Finally realizing that they had been hearing false evidence, officials closed the court. The witchcraft hysteria ended—but not before 19 persons had been hanged and another person killed by being crushed to death. Four or five more “witches” died in jail, and about 150 were imprisoned.

10. THE ENLIGHTENMENT Since before the Renaissance, philosophers in Europe had been using reason and the scientific method to obtain knowledge. They concluded that the world is governed not by chance or miracles but by fixed mathematical laws. These ideas about nature gained prevalence in the 1700s in a movement called the Enlightenment. Enlightenment ideas traveled from Europe to the colonies and spread quickly in numerous books and pamphlets. Literacy was particularly high in New England because the Puritans had long supported public education to ensure that everyone could read the Bible. One outstanding Enlightenment figure was Benjamin Franklin. Franklin embraced the notion of obtaining truth through experimentation and reasoning. For example, his most famous experiment—flying a kite in a thunderstorm— demonstrated that lightning was a form of electrical power. The Enlightenment also had a profound effect on political thought in the colonies. Colonial leaders such as Thomas Jefferson used reason to conclude that individuals have natural rights, which governments must respect. Enlightenment principles eventually would lead many colonists to question the authority of the British monarchy.

11. THE GREAT AWAKENING By the early 1700s, the Puritan church had lost its grip on society, and church membership was in decline. Furthermore, many people seemed to be doing so well in this world that they paid little attention to the next. As Puritan merchants prospered, they developed a taste for material possessions. Jonathan Edwards, of Northampton, Massachusetts, was one member of the clergy who sought to revive the intensity and commitment of the original Puritan vision. Edwards preached that church attendance was not enough for salvation; people must acknowledge their sinfulness and feel God’s love for them. The resulting religious revival, known as the Great Awakening, lasted throughout the 1730s and 1740s.

12. The Great Awakening brought many colonists, as well as Native Americans and African Americans, into organized Christian churches for the first time. As the movement gained momentum, it also challenged the authority of established churches. The Great Awakening also led to an increased interest in higher education, as several Protestant denominations founded colleges such as Princeton While the Great Awakening and the Enlightenment emphasized opposing aspects of human experience—emotionalism and reason, respectively—they had similar consequences. Both caused people to question traditional authority. Moreover, both stressed the importance of the individual— the Enlightenment by emphasizing human reason, and the Great Awakening by deemphasizing the role of church authority. These movements helped lead the colonists to question Britain’s authority over their lives. The separation between Britain and the colonies was further hastened by another significant event, a North American war between Great Britain and France, in which the colonists fought onBritain’s side.