1. Lung function & Structure
Lung Structure
Lung function & Structure

2. You should know The gross structure of the respiratory system
The essential features of the alveolar epithelium as a surface over which gas exchange occurs
The exchange of gases in the lungs
The mechanism of breathing
Pulmonary ventilation as the product of tidal volume and ventilation rate

3. Lung Structure
Lungs are the interface for the exchange of gases and their function is affected by both pathogens and lifestyle.
All aerobic organisms require a constant supply of oxygen in order to release energy in the form of ATP during respiration. The waste gas product carbon dioxide also has to be removed because the build up can be harmful.

4. Why have lungs?
We need lungs to enable oxygenation of our blood system in order to circulate to the relatively large volume of living cells. Mammals have to maintain a high body temperature and therefore have high metabolic and respiratory rates.
Air enters via the trachea and then into the left and right bronchus (plural bronchi). The bronchi lead into a pair of lobed structures called the lungs. Lungs consist of a series of highly branched tubules called bronchioles which end up in tiny air sacs called alveoli.

7. Why are a mammals lungs located within the body?
Air is not dense enough to support and protect delicate structures
They would cause loss of a great deal of water and dry out
Because lungs are located internally, we need to have a means of moving the external medium (air) over the surface of our lungs. This movement is called ventilation.

8. Rib cage
Rib cage is moved by muscles between ribs (intercostal muscles covered later)
Causes ventilation by a tidal stream
Means constant replenishment of air

9. Trachea
Flexible and supported with cartilage
Cartilage prevents trachea collapsing when air pressure falls
Tracheal walls consist of muscle
Lined with ciliated epithelium and goblet cells
Goblet cells produce mucus to trap dirt particles and bacteria
Cilia move mucus + dirt/bacteria up the throat into oesophagus to stomach

10. Bronchi Two divisions of the trachea – each leading to one lung
Bronchi (plural) and left and right bronchus (singular)
Similar cell structure as trachea – produce mucus and have cilia
Larger bronchi have cartilage – cartilage reduced as bronchi get smaller

11. Bronchioles Series of branching subdivisions of the bronchi
Walls made of muscle lined with epithelial cells
Muscle permits constriction to control the flow of air in and out of the alveoli

12. Alveoli (plural); alveolus (singular)
Alveoli are minute air sacs (about μm) at the end of the bronchioles
Contain collagen and elastic fibres
Elastic fibres allow alveoli to stretch when breathing in
When breath exits, elastic fibres spring/recoil back to aid expulsion of carbon dioxide
Lined with squamous epithelium
Alveoli membrane is the gas-exchange surface of the lungs
Blood vessels line the alveoli to diffuse gases

14. List key structures of air travelling from the nostril to the blood vessels surrounding the alveoli?
Nostril → nasal cavity → trachea → bronchi →bronchioles → alveoli → blood vessels

15. Mechanisms of Breathing
Remember in Biology we DO NOT call the process of intake of air ‘Respiration’ (that is the process of ENERGY production), we call this process Ventilation.
We must remember the HIGH → LOW rule again for particle movement
This time we are talking about air pressure.

17. Breathing Inspiration
External intercostal muscles pull ribs up and out.
Diaphragm muscles flatten diaphragm
Volume of thorax increases
Air pressure within thorax drops
Air enters lungs
Expiration
Internal intercostals muscles contract so ribs fall
Diaphragm muscles relax so it becomes dome-shaped
Volume of thorax decreases
Air pressure within thorax increases
Air leaves lungs

18. ACTIVE PROCESS – uses ENERY
Largely PASSIVE PROCESS – requires little energy

19. Diaphragm A sheet of muscle between the thorax and abdomen
The diaphragm is curved upward (domed position) when relaxed
When diaphragm muscles contract, it flattens and moves down
Causing an increase in thorax volume

20. During NORMAL quiet breathing, the recoil of the elastin within alveoli walls of the lungs is the MAIN cause of air being forced out (similar to balloons). Muscles become most important during strenuous condition such as exercise.

21. What is Pulmonary Ventilation?
The total volume of air that is moved into the lungs during one minute
To calculate this we need multiply two factors:
TIDAL VOLUME = volume of air normally taken in at EACH breath when body is at REST (usually 0.5dm3)
VENTILATION (Breathing) RATE
= the number of breaths taken in one minute. (usually breaths)

22. Pulmonary ventilation = tidal volume x ventilation rate
(dm3 min-1) (dm3) (min-1)

23. Pulmonary ventilation is the product of tidal volume and ventilation rate.

26. Exchange of Gases in the Lungs
Ventilation of gases within lungs is essential to provide a constant supply of oxygen to create a diffusion gradient within the alveolar surface.

28. What is the role of the alveoli in gas exchange?
We have about 300 million alveoli in EACH human lung.
Their total surface area is 70m2 (half a tennis court)
Each alveoli is lined with squamous epithelial cells (0.05μm to 0.3μm thick)
AROUND each alveoli is a network of pulmonary capillaries
Very narrow (7-10μm thick) so that red blood cells are flattened against the walls
Also have a single very thin wall (0.04μm – 0.2μm)

29. Complete the following table identifying essential features of gas exchange surfaces:
Characteristic
Benefit to gas exchange
Large surface area to volume ratio
Speeds up gas exchange
Squamous epithelial cells
Very thin to keep diffusion distance small
Partially permeable
Selective materials permitted across
Movement of environmental medium (air)
Maintain diffusion gradient (O2 in & CO2 out)
Movement of internal medium (blood)
Moisture
Aids optimal gas diffusion

30. Surface Area of exchange x Concentration Gradient Diffusion Distance
Fick`s Law
Rate of Diffusion is proportional to:
Surface Area of exchange x Concentration Gradient Diffusion Distance

31. Fill in missing gaps with additional key words:
Label the above diagram showing the key features with the appropriate number(s):

32. Summary Questions
How does each of the following features contribute to gas exchange efficiency?
The wall of each alveolus is not more than 0.3μm thick?
Diffusion distance small – thus rapid movement
There are 300 million alveoli in each lung?
Collectively, very large surface area
The surfaces of the alveoli are moist?
Permits optimal gas exchange; gases are exchanged in solution.
Each alveolus is covered by a dense network of pulmonary blood capillaries?
Collectively, provide a VERY large surface interface with blood

33. Each pulmonary capillary is very narrow?
Enables slowing down of blood (thus diffusion occurs faster) and blood cells pushed against capillary way to make diffusion distance smaller also

34. Explain the differences in air composition between the three samples.

35. Explain the differences in air composition between the three samples.
Exhaled air has been mixed with residual air within the air passages (bronchioles, bronchi and trachea) so is closer to atmospheric air in composition than that in the alveolar lumen.
Alveolar air has oxygen removed and carbon dioxide added.

36. Summary
Lung function
The gross structure of the human gas exchange system limited to the alveoli, bronchioles, bronchi, trachea and lungs.
The essential features of the alveolar epithelium as a surface over which gas exchange takes place.
The mechanism of breathing.
Pulmonary ventilation as the product of tidal volume and ventilation rate.
The exchange of gases in the lungs.