1. 4 . 3
Projections

2. Maps and Charts
A map is a small-scale flat-surface representation of some portion of the earth’s surface.
A representation that is designed for plotting navigational information is called a chart.
Often times, map and chart are used interchangeably.
Because the earth is a sphere, a map must show the portion of the earth’s surface it represents with some distortion.

3. Elements in Map Construction
There are four basic elements in map construction:
areas,
shapes,
bearings, and
distances.
The mathematical bases on which maps are constructed are termed projections.

4. Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
Concept supposes a cone superimposed over the surface of a sphere.

5. Properties Meridians of longitude converge toward the nearer pole.
Parallels of latitude are curves concave toward the nearer pole.
The scale is almost perfectly uniform.
A straight line drawn on this chart represents the arc of a Great Circle.

6. Mercator Projection
Based on the fact that a cylinder has its tangency at the Equator.
Can be visualized as a light radiating out from the center of the earth projecting an image outwards onto the cone.

7. Properties Meridians of longitude are straight and parallel.
Parallels of latitude are straight and parallel.
There is no constant scale.
A straight line drawn on this map is a Rhumb Line.
There is extreme exaggeration of longitude in northerly areas.
Distances shown near the equator are fairly precise.

8. Transverse Mercator Projection
Same technique as Mercator Projection except the cylinder is rotated 90º so that point of tangency is a meridian of longitude rather than the Equator.
Chart is accurate along the selected meridian.

9. Properties Similar to Mercator Projection except:
Quite accurate at depicting scale.
Distance is accurate along the meridian.
Distortion occurs at the edges of the map.

10. NOTE: You must use the buttons in the Confirmation Stage

11. Navigation Projections Let's try a few review questions on Navigation:
Question #1 - Name a map type. A
Mercator projection B
Transverse projection C
Lambert projection D
Lambert conic projection

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16. Navigation Projections Let's try a few review questions on Navigation:
Question #2 - Put a cone over the surface of the earth and imagine a light shining from inside the earth projecting an image outwards onto the cone. Then unroll the cone and you have a A
Mercator projection B
Transverse mercator projection C
Lambert conformal conic projection D
Transverse projection

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21. Properties of a Map Maps have a number of properties including:
represents a portion of the earth,
has meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude,
scale,
relief,
isogonic lines,
communities, roads and railways,
aerodromes,
restricted areas,
compass rose, and
aeronautical information.
Properties
of a Map

22. Scale
Scale is a relationship between a unit of distance on the map to the distance on the earth that the unit represents. Two methods include:
Representative Fraction:
most common method of expressing map scale.
expresses the ratio of a unit of length of the map to a corresponding number of similar units on the earth.
Graduated Scale:
a line drawn on some convenient part of the map and graduated to show the length of one mile on the map.

23. Relief
A representation of ground elevation above sea level on aeronautical maps. There are three ways to show relief on a map:
Layer Tinting
Contour Lines
Spot Heights

24. Layer Tinting
When the map is coloured to represent different levels of elevation.
An elevation legend is printed on the white border of every map to show what colours are used for different elevations.

25. Contour Lines
Lines drawn on a chart joining points of equal elevation above mean sea level.
The gradient of a slope is indicated by the horizontal distance between the contour lines.

26. Spot Heights
When high elevations are marked by a dot with the spot height written beside the dot.
The highest spot height in a quadrant is usually printed in larger numbers than the other spot heights.

27. NOTE: You must use the buttons in the Confirmation Stage

28. Navigation Projections Let's try a few review questions on Navigation:
Question #3 - What is a scale? A
Representative fraction B
Graduated scale C
Spot height D
Both A and B

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33. Navigation Projections Let's try a few review questions on Navigation:
Question #4 - What joins places of equal elevation above mean sea level? A
Layer tinting B
Contour lines C
Spot Heights D
Scale

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38. Types of Navigation Charts
World Aeronautical Charts (WAC)
VFR Navigation Charts (VNC)
Types of Navigation Charts
VFR Terminal Area Charts (YTA)
Enroute Charts

39. VFR Navigation Charts (VNC):
replacing the CPC’s,
depict more extensive geographical areas,
chart printed on both sides,
chart is identified by the name of principle landmark
based on Lambert Conformal Projection,
Useful during flights at lower altitudes and slower speeds
scale is 1:500,000.

40. World Aeronautical Charts (WAC):
designed for visual navigation at higher altitudes and greater speeds,
each chart depicts a sizeable portion of a geographical area,
each chart is identified by a letter and a number,
printed on both sides,
scale is 1:1,000,000.

41. VFR Terminal Area Charts:
large-scale charts (1:250,000) published for those airports in Canada which have been designated as classified airspace for control purposes,
based on Transverse Mercator Projection.

42. Enroute Charts :
Low altitude charts are for altitudes less than 18,000 feet and high altitude charts are for altitudes equal to or greater than 18,000 feet.
Provide information for radio navigation over designated airways system… very little visual information.
Its scale is not consistent.

43. Canadian Flight Supplement
Supplement to A.I.P. Canada
Lists all aerodromes shown on VNC’s, and WAC’s.
It also contains all kinds of valuable information related to aviation and is absolutely invaluable to a pilot.

44. NOTE: You must use the buttons in the Confirmation Stage

45. Navigation Projections Let's try a few review questions on Navigation:
Question #5 - What is the scale of a VNC? A
1:1,000,000 B
1:500,000 C
1:250,000 D
None of the above

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50. Navigation Projections Let's try a few review questions on Navigation:
Question #6 - What are WAC charts are used for? A
Slow speeds at low altitudes B
Visual navigation at high speeds C
Terminal Class C airspace D
Radio navigation

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55. Navigation Projections Congratulations!!
You have now completed the Projections lesson of the Navigation Module. Of course, this lesson is always available to you for future reference if required.
You are now ready to move along to the next Navigation lesson you have not completed or to any other module you wish. You can advance to the Self Test Module if you feel ready to challenge the final exam.
Good Luck!