1. 1 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia M.T. Amin, H. Kim, M.Y. Han Enhancing SODIS for safe drinking water supplies from collected rainwater Water Safety Conference 2010

2. 2 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia Contents 1 Introduction 2 3 4 Materials and Methods Results and Discussion Conclusions

3. 3 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia

4. 4 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia Background Lots of countries have water shortage problems over the world Rainwater harvesting (RWH) can be alternative water resource to these countries Because RWH system is simple to install and manage, this system has been spread to water shortage areas. Sited from “ELLIAS SAIDIN and AMINUDDIN BAKI, RAINWATER HARVESTING: POTENTIAL ALTERNATIVE WATER RESOURCES IN MALAYSIA, WATER MALAYSIA 2009”

5. 5 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia What is rainwater harvesting system? Gardening Cleaning Emergency drain pipe Uses Toilet Catchment Storage

6. 6 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia Rainwater as drinking water? -At least one-third of the population in developing countries has no access to safe drinking water -Rainwater can’t be used as drinking water for the possibility of microbial contamination. Simple disinfection method can make and supply safe drinking water by rainwater

7. 7 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia Solar Disinfection (SODIS) Inactivation of microorganisms by UV-A-radiation and thermal treatment Suited for providing safe drinking water in rural and semi-urban communities in developing countries Promoted by the World Health Organization (WHO)

8. 8 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia Limitation of SODIS Few scientific and engineering data for rainwater disinfection Only strong sunlight radiation for about 6~8 h daily is adequate for the complete disinfection SOCO-DIS (Solar Collector Disinfection) system Improving SODIS to achieve more concentrated sunlight radiation and temperature effects

9. 9 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia Objectives To compare the efficiency of SOCO-DIS with that of SODIS To optimize the developed SOCO-DIS system by investigating the effects of a variety of factors. - base surface - box angles - pH - turbidity

10. 10 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia

11. 11 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia Sample collection site Completion date2005.10 Roof area 3,892 ㎡ Green roof area 935 ㎡ residence about 1,000 persons RWH Beginning date 2006. 4 A kind of catchment concrete, terrace, green roof Catchment area 3,652 ㎡ Tank volume250 ton Consumed60~90 ton/day Usestoilet * RWH : Rainwater harvesting system

12. 12 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia The quality of rainwater samples PHYSIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERSMICROBIAL PARAMETERS Initial Temp. 0 CpH EC μS/cm DO mg/l Turbidity NTU TC CFU/100ml FC CFU/100ml E-Coli CFU/100ml HPC CFU/ml 23-257-9150-5005-91-5880-1100400-450200-2501500-2000 Main target Samples were always collected from the same outlet point, about 1.35 m from the base of the tank The reason for the different initial values of all the parameters is the effect of the season and residential time in the tank These are used as the standard initial values for the rainwater samples in this study.

13. 13 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia Weather conditions Weak sunlightModerate sunlightStrong sunlight Irradiance range (avg.), W/m 2 200-450 (300)450-700 (580)650-1000 (880) Disinfection SystemSOCO-DISSODISSOCO-DISSODISSOCO-DISSODIS Max. Water Temp., 0 C393546445248 Weather conditions are categorized into three different types, depending upon low, medium and high sunlight radiations. The temperature difference is about 2~4 0 C, with the great temperature rise in the SOCO-DIS system. Effective temperature about 50 O C observed only under strong weather conditions in SOCO-DIS

14. 14 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia Outline of experiment Reflective PET bottle (SODIS) SOCO-DIS system 0.35 m 0.75 m 0.75*0.25 m 0.25 m ø θ B W L 1.7 L rainwater sample was contained to 2 L PET bottle. Aluminum foil is placed under the PET bottle for reflection SOCO-DIS SODIS Consist of five wooden components covered by aluminum A maximum theoretical concentration of three times the solar radiation is achieved TC, FC, E-Coli, HPC was observed

15. 15 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia

16. 16 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia 1- The effects of weather condition 2- The effects of base surfaces 3- The effects of box angles 4- The effects of initial pH 5- The effects of initial turbidity

17. Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia The effects of weather condition Disinfection exhibited three stages of treatment depending upon the sunlight intensity with middle stage being critical. Synergistic effects of radiations and temp. are evident under strong weather conditions where rainwater is disinfected completely.

18. Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia SOCO-DIS SODIS 200 500 850 The effects of weather condition In case of SODIS, no parameter met the potable guideline values SOCO-DIS system proved ineffective under weak weather conditions mostly because the synergistic effects of radiations and temperatures are absent The difference of disinfection efficiency of SOCO-DIS system is about 20- 30% with that of simple SODIS mostly because of the enhanced effects of concentrated radiations

19. Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia The effects of base surfaces Disinfection efficiency of SOCO-DIS system with different base surfaces including reflective, absorptive, and transmissive (Trans.) is evaluated and compared under moderate sunlight conditions. The thermal effects have not significantly contributed by comparing the results of absorptive base surface with that of reflective base surface where disinfection efficiency is more. With insignificant thermal or synergistic effects because of low temperature, it can be concluded that UV radiation effects are prominent under moderate sunlight conditions.

20. Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia The effects of box angles To improve the amount of radiation reaching the water, the solar box is kept an angle of 37 0 (Latitude of the location=mid-day position of sun). Solar box with continuous changing of direction with respect to the sun’s position is the best choice due to minimized shading effects of open wings of box, but it would require more labor work. The best selection, thus, would be the inclined position of box for optimum disinfection efficiency.

21. Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia Rainwater with acidic pH offered best disinfection efficiency for SOCO-DIS system for all microbial parameters without any exception. TC and HPC, which were not removed under standard sampling conditions of neutral pH, are also inactivated completely at low pH values. Overall disinfection efficiency increased from 10 to 20% by decreasing pH values from basic to neutral and then acidic states, respectively. The effects of initial pH

22. Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia SODIS showed poor performance for all microbial parameters at higher turbidity and disinfection efficiency decreased by almost 10-20%. Low turbidity sample show better results although this difference is insignificant up to may be 20NTU. This could be due to the loss of UV due to scattering & absorption by particles The effects of initial turbidity

23. 23 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia

24. 24 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia Conclusions Disinfection efficiency of the SOCO-DIS is 20~30 % better than SODIS and it managed complete disinfection under strong and even moderate weather condition Optimized SOCO-DIS design and operation conditions - Reflective base: 10~15 % better than absorptive and transmissive surface - Inclined position: 10% better than horizontal position - low pH: improving the efficiency from 10 to 20 % - low turbidity: decrease the efficiency by 10 to 15 %

25. 25 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia Further study Social acceptability of rainwater as drinking water Even though there is excellent technology, it has no meaning without social acceptability. Therefore, effort to change unwelcome attitude should be followed to use rainwater as drinking water.

26. 26 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia Rainwater challenge Water tasting event was held with tap water, bottled water and treated rainwater People vote there sticker to the most acceptable water as drinking water Tap waterRainwaterBottled water

27. 27 Water Safety Conference November 2-4 2010, Kuching, Malaysia