1. The Sedimentary Archives
CHAPTER 3

2. Controls on sedimentary rock features
Tectonic setting
Physical, chemical, and biological processes in the depositional environment
Method of sediment transport
Rocks in source area from which sediment is derived
Climate (and its effect on weathering)
Post-depositional processes of lithification (cementation, compaction)

3. Tectonic Setting Tectonics:
The forces controlling deformation or structural behavior of a large area of the Earth's crust over a long period of time.
Tectonic Settings influence:
Size of clastic particles
Thickness of deposit
Rate of erosion or subsidence

4. Continental Tectonic Regimes
Craton - stable interior of a continent; undisturbed by mountain-building events since the Precambrian
Shields- large areas of exposed crystalline rocks)
Platforms- like shields but covered by flat-lying or gently warped sedimentary rocks
Orogenic belts - elongate regions bordering the craton which have been deformed by compression since the Precambrian

5. Figure 3-1 (p. 62) The craton and orogenic belts of North America.

6. Environments of Deposition
All of the physical, chemical, biologic and geographic conditions under which sediments are deposited.
Sediments formed from the weathering of pre-existing rocks outside the basin, and transported to the environment of deposition Or
Sediments form inside the basin; includes chemical precipitates, most carbonate rocks, and coal.

7. Marine Environments Continental shelf (shallow) Continental slope
Continental rise
Abyssal plain (deep)

8. Figure 3-4 (p. 65) Deep-sea fan built of land-derived sediment emerging from the lower part of a submarine canyon. Such fans occur in association with large rivers, such as the Amazon, Congo, Ganges, and Indus. (Vertical exaggeration 200:1.)

9. Transitional Environments
Transitional environments = shoreline deposits
Examples include:
Deltas
Beaches and Barrier Islands
Lagoons
Tidal flats

10. Deltas Deltas fan-shaped accumulations of sediment
Mississippi Delta
Niger Delta
Deltas
fan-shaped accumulations of sediment
river flows into a standing body of water, such as a lake or sea
sediments are dropped, forming this progradational feature.

11. Barrier Islands
Beaches and Barrier Islands are shoreline deposits exposed to wave energy and dominated by sand with a marine fauna.
Lagoons are bodies of water on the landward side of barrier islands.
Tidal flats are low-lying plains near lagoons. Marshy

12. Barrier Island System
Subenvironments:

13. The Outer Banks
Dauphin Island

14. Continental Environments
Continental environments are those environments which are present on the continents.
Examples:
Fluvial (River)
Alluvial fans
Lakes (lacustrine)
Glacial
Eolian (wind)

15. Alluvial Fan
Fluvial
Lacustrine

16. Eolian
Glacier

17. Color of Sedimentary Rocks
Clues about depositional environment:
Black and dark gray coloration in sedimentary rocks generally indicates the presence of organic carbon and iron
Reddish coloration in sedimentary rocks indicates the presence of oxidized iron
Green and gray coloration in sedimentary rocks indicates the presence of reduced iron

18. Rock Colors
Dolomite
Red Siltstone
Gray Evaporite

19. Size and Sorting of Clasts
Texture refers to the size, shape, sorting, and arrangement of grains in a sedimentary rock.
Three textural components in clastic rocks:
Clasts
Matrix
Cement

20. Clasts and matrix
Clasts
Matrix

21. Interpretation of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
The texture of a sedimentary rock can provide clues to the depositional environment.
Fine-grained= quiet water
Large grains= higher energy (velocity) deposition

22. Grain Size
Sedimentary grains are categorized according to size using the Wentworth Scale.
Wentworth Scale for sedimentary grain size:
GRAVEL (>2mm)
SAND
SILT
CLAY (<1/256mm)

23. Sorting
Sorting refers to the distribution of grain sizes in a rock.
POOR!
GOOD!

24. Sorting
In general, windblown sediments are better sorted than wave-washed sediments.
Well-sorted sands
Have higher porosity and permeability than poorly-sorted sands (if not tightly cemented),
May be good reservoirs for petroleum and natural gas.
Poor sorting is the result of rapid deposition of sediment without sorting by currents.
Examples:
alluvial fan deposits
glacial tillites.

25. Grain Shape
Grain shape is described in terms of rounding of grain edges and sphericity (equal dimensions).
Rounding results from abrasion and grain impact during transport.

26. Figure 3-13 (p. 72) Shape of sediment particles
Figure (p. 72) Shape of sediment particles. (A) An angular particle (all edges sharp). (B) A rounded grain that has little sphericity. (C) A well-rounded, highly spherical grain. Roundness refers to the smoothing of edges and corners, whereas sphericity measures the degree of approach of a particle to a sphere.

27. Sedimentary Structures
Sedimentary structures are
visible at the scale of an outcrop (LARGE!)
that formed at the time of deposition or shortly thereafter (before lithification)
Evidence of processes operating

28. Bedding Sedimentary rocks generally have bedding or stratification
Individual layers less than 1 cm thick are laminations
common in mudrocks
Beds are thicker than 1 cm
common in rocks with coarser grains

29. Graded Bedding Graded bedding is common in turbidity current deposits
Some beds show an upward gradual decrease
in grain size, known as graded bedding
Graded bedding is common in turbidity current deposits

30. Graded Bedding

31. Cross-Bedding
Cross-bedding forms when layers come to rest at an angle to the surface
Cross-beds result from transport by either water or wind

32. Cross Beds

33. Ripple Marks
Small-scale alternating ridges and troughs are known as ripple marks and are common in sandstone
Current ripple marks
form in response to water or wind currents
flowing in one direction
and have asymmetric profiles
Wave-formed ripple marks
result from the oscillation of waves
tend to be symmetrical

34. Current Ripple Marks Ripples with an asymmetrical shape
Internally cross- bedded
Flow upper right to lower left

35. Wave-Formed Ripples
As the waves wash back and forth, symmetrical ripples form
Produced by wave (shallow)

36. Mud Cracks
When clay-rich sediments dry, they shrink and crack into polygonal patterns fractures called mud cracks
Mud cracks require wetting and drying to form,

37. Ancient Mud Cracks

38. Geopetal Structures Which way is up??
Sedimentary structures can be used to determine "up direction".
graded beds
cross beds
mudcracks
Flute marks
symmetrical (but not asymmetrical) ripples
stromatolites
burrows
tracks,

39. Interpretating Sands in Clastic Rocks
Quartz-rich (mature; quartz sand)
Feldspar-rich (immature; arkosic sand)
Rock Fragment-rich (immature; lithic sand)
Clay-rich (immature; greywacke)

40. Figure (p. 77) Four categories of sandstone as seen in thin section under the microscope. Diameter of field is about 4 mm.

41. Figure (p. 78) Idealized geologic conditions under which quartz sandstone may be deposited. There is little tectonic movement in this environment. Water depth is shallow, and the basin subsides very slowly.

42. Figure 3-26 (p. 79) Geologic environment in which arkose may be deposited.

43. Figure 3-28 (p. 80) Tectonic setting in which graywacke is deposited
Figure (p. 80) Tectonic setting in which graywacke is deposited. Frequently graywackes are transported by masses of water highly charged with suspended sediment. Because of the suspended matter, the mass is denser than surrounding water and moves along the sloping sea floor or down submarine canyons as a turbidity current. Graywacke sediment characteristically accumulates in deep-sea fans at the base of the continental slope.

44. Figure 3-29 (p. 80) Deltaic environment in which lithic sandstones may be deposited.

45. Interpretation of Carbonates
Main Processes
Chemical direct precipitates (carbonate mud)
Biochemical: organic contribution (shells, etc.)

46. Characteristics of most marine carbonate environments
Warm water
Tropical climate (30 ° N - 30 ° S of equator)
Shallow water (less than 200 m deep)
Clear water (low to no terrigenous input)
Sunlight required for photosynthesis by algae

47. Some limestones may be the accumulation of shells
Shell fragments (coquina)
Microscopic
Foraminifera (chalk)
Fossiliferous limestone

48. Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 Rock and mineral Original (forming today) is rare
Many older rocks have altered (dolomitized) over time

49. Interpretation of Shales
Shale - very fine-grained rock composed of clay, mud, and silt.
Types:
Quartz-rich shales (quartz sandstones)
Feldspar-rich shales (arkoses)
Chlorite-rich shales (greywackes)
Mica-rich shales (greywackes)

50. Unconformities
Unconformities in sequences of strata represent times of nondeposition and/or erosion that encompass long periods of geologic time,perhaps millions or tens of millions of years
The rock record is incomplete!

51. The origin of an unconformity
Deposition began 12 million years ago (MYA), continuing until 4 MYA
For 1 million years erosion occurred
removing 2 MY of rocks
** Total of 3 million year hiatus**
The last column is the actual stratigraphic record with this unconformity

52. Types of Unconformities
Three types of surfaces can be unconformities:
A disconformity is a surface separating younger from older rocks, both of which are parallel to one another
A nonconformity is an erosional surface cut into metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks and covered by sedimentary rocks
An angular unconformity is an erosional surface on tilted or folded strataover which younger rocks were deposited

53. Figure 3-48 (p. 92) Four types of erosional unconformities
Figure (p. 92) Four types of erosional unconformities. (A) Angular unconformity. (B) Nonconformity. (C) Disconformity.