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Tasers and In-custody Deaths: The EMS Perspective
Michael D. Curtis, MD EMS Medical Director Saint Michael’s Hospital – Stevens Point Saint Clare’s Hospital – Weston Ministry Health Care
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Objectives Tasers Excited Delirium Physical Restraints
Medical Management
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Approximately half of the 620 law enforcement agencies in Wisconsin use Tasers.
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Advantages of the Taser
Less risk of injury to law enforcement officers when subjects actively resist Less risk of injury or death to subjects from law enforcement use of force Photo Source: Taser International Instructor Certification Course V12, November 2004
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Thomas A. Swift’s Electric Rifle (TASER)
Source: Source: M26 Taser. Manufactured by Taser International
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X26 Taser Probes Blast Doors AFIDs Laser Sight LIL: Low Intensity Lights (LEDs) Trigger Enhanced Grip Zones DPM: Digital Power Magazine DPM Release Button Stainless Steel Shock Plates Safety Illumination Selector Serial No. Plate High Visibility Sights Air Cartridge TASER Wire Source: Taser International Instructor Certification Course V12, November 2004
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M26 Taser Source: Taser International Instructor Certification Course V12, November 2004
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Tasers, in and of themselves, are not lethal weapons.
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Tasers Use Electricity
50,000 Volts Static Electricity door knob 35,000 – 100,000 Volts Van De Graaff Generator: 1 – 20 Million Volts Photo Source: Taser International Instructor Certification Course V12, November 2004
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Tasers Use Electricity
It’s not the voltage it’s the amperage that is dangerous Tasers use high voltage, but very low amperage M26: 3.6 milliamps (average current) M26:1.76 joules per pulse X26: 2.1 milliamps (average current) X26: 0.36 joules per pulse X26 Taser delivers 19 pulses per second
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Tasers Use Electricity
Cardiac Defibrillators use 150 – 400 joules per pulse The safety index for the fibrillation threshold ranges from 15 – 42 depending on the weight of the subject Source: PACE 2005; 28:S284-S287. Pig study Variable current/constant pulse frquency
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Probe Trajectory Aim like a standard firearm at center of mass
Use sights and/or laser Rule of Thumb: 1 foot (.3m) spread for every 7 feet (2.1m) of travel Review 8-degree downward spread of bottom probe. When fired, the top probe impacts at point of aim. The laser indicates the point of impact within 3 inches at a distance of 13 feet. The bottom dart travels at an 8-degree angle downward. The spread between probes increases the further you get from your target with the probes separating one foot (.3m) for every 7 feet (2.1m) they travel. The wire is thin insulated wire (copper-clad steel) and can break easily. (Show how thin wire is). (m) m m m m m m Target Distance (ft) ′ ' ' ' ′ ′ ′ Spread (in) ″ " " " " ″ ″ (cm) cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
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Taser Effects High voltage affects nerves
Leads to intense muscle contraction Does not affect muscles directly
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Tasers have caused injuries, but most Taser-related injuries are minor.
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Taser Injuries Muscle Contraction Injuries Injuries from Falls
Stress fractures Muscle or tendon strain or tears Back injuries Joint injuries Injuries from Falls May be serious depending on the height
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Taser Injuries Minor Surface Burns
Due to arcing Tasers will ignite flammable liquids and gasses Potential for serious burns Penetrating Eye Injuries
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Taser Darts
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Taser Dart Injuries The skin at the puncture site is cauterized
A swift tug will remove the barb easily Taser users receive this training Wipe site with alcohol prep Consider a band-aid
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Source: Taser International X26 User Course V12, November 2004
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News media sources have implied a cause and effect relationship between Tasers and in-custody deaths…
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Concern About Tasers 147 in-custody taser-related deaths since 1999
Source: Robert Anglen, Arizona Republic August 8, 2005 The number is growing Draws significant negative media attention Outcry from human rights activists Amnesty International
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Source: Seattle Post-Intelligencer
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There is no scientific evidence to date of a cause and effect relationship between Tasers and in-custody deaths.
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Taser Use in Police Training
Over 150,000 police volunteers No deaths
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In-Custody Deaths… Why do some people die following a violent confrontation with police? What role does the taser play, if any? What can police officers do to prevent in-custody deaths?
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Typical Scenario Male subject creating a disturbance Triggers 911 call
Obvious to police that subject will resist Struggle ensues with multiple officers May involve OC, Taser, choke holds, batons, etc.
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Typical Scenario Physical restraints applied
Subject subdued in a prone position Officers kneeling on subjects back Handcuffs, ankle cuffs Hogtying, hobble restraint or TARP Prone vs. lateral positioning Transported in a squad car to jail
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Typical Scenario Continued struggle against restraints
Sometimes damages squad car Apparent resolution period Subject becomes calm or slips into unconsciousness Labored or shallow breathing Followed unexpectedly by…
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Source: Am J Emerg Med; 2001:19(3), 187-191
Typical Scenario Death Resuscitation efforts are futile Los Angeles County EMS Study 18 ED deaths witnessed by paramedics (all were restrained) In 13 – rhythm documented VT and asystole were most common No ventricular fibrillation All failed resuscitation Source: Am J Emerg Med; 2001:19(3),
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Typical Scenario The press: The Fallacy: “Post hoc ergo proptor hoc”
Subject “died after being shocked with taser” Implies cause and effect The Fallacy: “Post hoc ergo proptor hoc”
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Typical Aftermath Several weeks later – autopsy results…
Cause of Death Excited delirium Illicit stimulant drug abuse Concurrent medical problems Minimal injury from police confrontation It wasn’t the taser after all Officers exonerated
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Typical Aftermath Meanwhile the officers…
Placed on administrative leave Subjected to investigation Face threat of potential criminal charges Face threat of potential civil litigation Subjected to public outcry Experience personal and family stress Contemplate a career change
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Several forensic pathology studies have cited excited delirium, not Tasers, as the cause of death.
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What is Excited Delirium?
A controversial theory An imminently life threatening medical emergency… Not a crime in progress!
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What is Excited Delirium?
Diagnostic criteria Characteristic behavioral components Metabolic Acidosis Hyperthermia Identifiable cause Stimulant drugs Psychiatric disease It does not explain all behavior that leads to confrontation with police
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Pathophysiology Central nervous system effects:
Changes in dopamine transporter and receptors Accounts for behavioral changes Accounts for hyperthermia
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Behavioral Components: Delirium
“Off the track” Confusion Clouding of consciousness Shifting attention Disorientation Hallucinations Onset rapid – acute Duration brief – transient
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Behavioral Components: Psychosis
Bizarre behavior and thoughts Hallucinations, paranoia
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Behavioral Components: Excited (Agitated)
Extreme agitation, increased activity Aggravated by efforts to subdue and restrain Not likely to comply after one or two tasers
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Behavioral Components: Excited (Agitated)
Violent or aggressive behavior Towards inanimate objects, especially smashing glass Towards self, others or police Noncompliant with requests to desist Superhuman strength Insensitive to pain
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Excited Delirium Hyperthermia High body temperature 105 – 113 oF
Drug’s effect on temperature control center in brain (hypothalamus) Tell-tale signs: Profuse sweating Undressing – partial or complete
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Excited Delirium Hyperthermia Aggravated by increased activity
the ensuing struggle warm humid weather (summertime) dehydration certain therapeutic medications
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Excited Delirium Metabolic Acidosis Survivors:
Potentially life threatening Elevated blood potassium level Factors: dehydration, increased activity Survivors: Kidney damage due to muscle breakdown May require dialysis
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Excited Delirium: The Usual Suspects
#1 Cause: Stimulant Drug Abuse Acute intoxication Superimposed on chronic abuse Acute intoxication triggers the event
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Excited Delirium: The Usual Suspects
Underlying psychiatric disease First described in 1849 before cocaine was first extracted from cocoa leaf Mania (Bipolar Disorder) Psychosis (Schizophrenia) Noncompliance with medications to control psychosis or bipolar disorder Unusual – #2 Cause Rare: New onset schizophrenia
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Stimulant Drugs Cocaine Toxicology studies show… The major offender
On the rise due to “crack epidemic” Toxicology studies show… Low to moderate levels of cocaine High levels of benzoylecognine (the major breakdown product of cocaine) Suggests recent use superimposed on chronic abuse
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Stimulant Drugs Other known culprits include:
Methamphetamine Phencyclidine (PCP) LSD Cocaethylene = Cocaine + Alcohol Toxic to the heart Unknown role in excited delirium deaths
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Concurrent Health Conditions
Obesity Heart Disease Coronary artery disease Cardiomegaly Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy Myocarditis Fibrotic heart
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Autopsy Proof Specialized laboratories can identify changes in brain chemistry that are characteristic of excited delirium Blood and brain tissue levels of benzoylecognine and cocaine Typical ratio 5:1
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Tasers and Excited Delirium Deaths
It’s not the Taser Many in-custody deaths long before tasers were ever used Documented in 1980s medical literature Deaths of persons not in custody Found naked in bathrooms Wet towels Empty ice cube trays scattered about A futile effort to cool themselves
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Tasers and Excited Delirium Deaths
It is unknown whether tasers have different adverse effects on people with excited delirium than on healthy volunteers Tasers No proximate temporal relationship between taser use and death Multiple or continuous taser shocks Taser International’s recent warning against repeated shocks
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Whether repeated or continuous Taser shocks is safe remains unknown
Whether repeated or continuous Taser shocks is safe remains unknown. They should probably be avoided, if possible.
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Restraints and In-Custody Deaths
What roles do physical restraint, restraining technique and restraint position play in excited delirium deaths?
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Physical Restraints Source: Prehosp Emerg Care, 2003:7(1);
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Physical Restraint Issues
Positional Asphyxia Deaths have occurred with subjects restrained in a prone position Theory: restricts breathing The role of the position is unclear Little data to support causality Other factors are the likely culprits
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Physical Restraint Issues
No clinically significant changes in pulmonary function tests in healthy volunteers Am J Forensic Med Pathol Sep;19(3):201-5.
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Physical Restraint Issues
Restraint Asphyxia Increased deaths in restrained patients Rat Study 3 fold increase in cocaine-related deaths among “restrained” rats Life Sci. 1994;55(19):PL Whether these may be contributory remains controversial, but still possible Not considered causal
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Physical Restraint Issues
Compression asphyxia What are the adverse effects on breathing and circulation when one or more officers kneel on the subjects back as they handcuff him?
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Excited delirium is an imminently life-threatening medical emergency.
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The “Freight Train to Death”
How police restrain or position the subject will not stop “the freight train to death”
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The behavioral features of excited delirium include criminal acts, but…
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Excited delirium is not a crime in progress, and responders must recognize the difference, before it’s too late.
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Recognizing Excited Delirium
How they act How they look What they say and how they say it What they are doing How they make you feel How they respond to you How they respond to force How they respond to the taser
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Recognizing Excited Delirium
Agitation or Excitement = Increased activity and intensity Aggressive, threatening or combative – gets worse when challenged or injured Amazing feats of strength Pressured loud incoherent speech Sweating (or loss of sweating late) Dilated pupils/less reactive to light Rapid breathing
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Recognizing Excited Delirium
Delirium = Confusion Disoriented Person, place, time, purpose Rapid onset over a short period of recent time “He just started acting strange” Easily distracted/lack of focus Decreased awareness and perception Rapid changes in emotions (laughter, anger, sadness)
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Recognizing Excited Delirium
Psychotic = bizarre behavior Thought content inappropriate for circumstances Hallucinations (visual or auditory) Delusions (grandeur, paranoia or reference) Flight of ideas/tangential thinking Makes you feel uncomfortable
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Mnemonic: NOT A CRIME Naked – and sweating from hyperthermia
Objects – violence against, especially glass Tough – unstoppable, insensitive to pain Acute onset – “He just snapped!” Confused – person, place, purpose, perception Resistant – will not follow commands to desist Incoherent speech – shouting, bizarre content Mental Health or Makes you uncomfortable Early EMS Back-up
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Bad Behavior: Other Reasons
Alcohol intoxication or withdrawal Other drug use problems Example: Cocaine psychosis Pure psychiatric disease Head injury Dementia (Alzheimer’s Disease) Hypoglycemia Hyperthyroidism
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Patients with excited delirium need rapid aggressive medical intervention.
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Alternative Strategy Attempt verbal de-escalation
Summon back-up quickly Summon EMS as early as possible Use taser before a struggle ensues Jump the subject and administer tranquillizer Back off and contain the subject without restraint Once calm transport (no restraints?) Minimize struggle and restraints Unrealistically simplified?? – Maybe!
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The first goal of therapy is to gain control of the violent behavior.
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The “Ideal” Drug Rapid effective tranquilization
No repeat dosing No significant adverse effects respiratory depression cardiovascular depression neurological adverse effects Easy to administer (IM) Allows easy assessment of neurological status on ED arrival
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In Search of The “Ideal” Drug
Benzodiazepines Neuroleptics Atypical antipsychotics Ketamine
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Benzodiazepines Effective But usually require repeat doses
Adverse reactions: Hypotension Respiratory Depression Over sedation
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Neuroleptics and Atypical Antipsychotics
Rapid onset (10 – 15 minutes or less) Can be very effective in a single dose Prolong the QT Interval (Droperidol) Target dopamine D2 receptors May exacerbate hyperthermia
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Ketamine Very rapid onset of action (<5 minutes)
Highly effective in a single dose Favorable safety profile in healthy patients Potential adverse effects: Adrenergic over stimulation in excited delirium “Emergence reactions” in adults
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The second goal of therapy is to stabilize the underlying pathophysiologic processes.
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Other ALS Interventions
Dehydration/Metabolic Acidosis: IV NS X 2 W/O Hyperthermia: Cool environment, disrobe, tepid mist and fanning, cooling blankets Hyperkalemia?: Fluids, Calcium Chloride, Sodium Bicarbonate, Albuterol Rapid transport
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Fall Back Position Proceed to customary practices at any point when
This strategy appears to fail Safety appears to be endangered It is necessary to escalate the level of force based on the threat level Don’t transport in a squad car Use the least amount of force needed
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Caveats Never place an agitated and combative patient in an ambulance without physical restraints Never transport a restrained patient without an officer present who can unlock the restraints Should the transporting officer disable his/her weapons?
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Potential Pitfalls Can’t wait for back-up or EMS ALS not available
Struggle and restraints cannot be avoided
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Summary Excited Delirium is an imminently life threatening medical emergency, not a crime in progress In-custody deaths likely related to excited delirium Tasers – if used early – may help (remains unproven) ALS medics can give potent tranquilizers Rapid aggressive medical stabilization needed
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Summary Beware of potential side effects of therapeutic drugs
Treat for hyperthermia, dehydration, metabolic acidosis and potential hyperkalemia
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The End Michael D. Curtis, MD EMS Medical Director
Questions? Thank You! Michael D. Curtis, MD EMS Medical Director Saint Michael’s Hospital Saint Clare’s Hospital
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