1. Power and Influence in the Workplace
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. The Power of Managing Your Boss
Managing your boss is the process of improving the relationship with your manager for the benefit of both of you and the organization. It includes developing bases of power that enable you to influence the manager and thereby achieve organizational objectives. Most executives say it is a key factor in everyone’s career success.
Managing your boss is the process of improving the
relationship with your manager for the benefit of both of you
and the organization. It includes developing bases of power
that enable you to influence the manager and thereby achieve
organizational objectives. Most executives say it is a key factor
in everyone’s career success.

3. The Meaning of Power
Power is the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others.
Potential, not actual use
People have power they don’t use -- may not know they possess
A perception, not necessarily reality
The capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence
others
• Power is not the act of changing someone’s attitudes or
behavior – it is only the potential to do so
• People may have power they don’t use – may not even know
they have power
• Power is based on the target’s perception that the powerholder
controls a valuable resource
• Power involves unequal dependence of one party on another
party

4. Power and Dependence Person A Person B Person B’s Goal
Person B’s countervailing power over Person A
Person A is perceived as controlling resources that help or hinder Person B’s goal achievement.
Person B
Person B’s Goal
The less powerful party still has some degree of power –
called countervailing power:
• Capacity of a person, team, or organization to keep a more
powerful person or group in the exchange relationship
• Person A dominates the power relationship, but Person B has
enough countervailing power to keep Person A in the exchange
relationship
• Power relationships depends on some minimum level of trust
Person A’s power over Person B

5. Model of Power in Organizations
over others
Sources
of Power
Contingencies
of Power
Legitimate
Reward
Coercive
Expert
Referent
Power is derived from five sources
The model also identifies four contingencies of power

6. Deference to Authority: Le Jeu de la Mort
French reality television recently revealed how far people are willing to submit to authority. Only 16 of the 80 contestants refused to administer the strongest shocks (460 volts – enough to kill a person) when another contestant gave the wrong answers. Fortunately, the other contestant was an actor whose screams were fake; he did not actually receive the shocks.
French reality television recently revealed how far people are
willing to submit to authority. In a variation of the 1960s
experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram, only 16 of the 80
contestants refused to administer the strongest shocks (460
volts – enough to kill a person) when another contestant gave
the wrong answers. Fortunately, the other contestant was an
actor whose screams were fake; he did not actually receive
the shocks.

7. Legitimate Power
Agreement that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others
Based on job descriptions and mutual agreement
Legitimate power range (zone of indifference) varies across national and org cultures.
Norm of reciprocity – legitimate power as a felt obligation to help others who helped you in the past
• Agreement that people in certain roles can request certain
behaviors of others – a perceived right or obligation
• Based on job descriptions, but also on mutual agreement from
those expected to abide by this authority
• Operates within a range i.e. “zone of indifference” that varies
among individuals, national and organizational cultures
• Norm of reciprocity – subtle form of legitimate power – a felt
obligation and social expectation of helping or otherwise giving
something of value to someone who has already helped or
given something to you

8. Legitimate Power: Right to Control Information Flow
Wheel formation
All-channels formation
Potent form of legitimate power occurs when people have the
right to control the information others receive
Gatekeepers (wheel formation) – gain power by controlling
information that others require in contrast to all-channel formation
where individuals have less information control
This person has high information control
These people individually have low information control

9. Reward and Coercive Power
Reward Power
Ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by others and to remove negative sanctions
Coercive Power
Ability to apply punishment
Peer pressure is a form of coercive power
Reward and coercive power exist upward as well as downward in hierarchies.
Control over the allocation of rewards valued by others and to
remove negative sanctions
Managers have power over the distribution of organizational
rewards e.g. pay, promotions, time off, vacations, work
assignments, etc.
Employees have reward power over bosses through feedback
and ratings in 360-degree feedback systems

10. Expert Power
The capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills that they value
Coping with uncertainty
Organizations operate better in predictable environments
People gain power by using their expertise to:
Prevent environmental changes
Forecast environmental changes
Absorb environmental changes
Capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills
valued by others – originates from within the person
Perceived ability to manage uncertainties
Three types of expertise that cope with uncertainty:
1. Prevention – e.g. ability to prevent the organization from
experiencing a cash shortage
2. Forecasting – e.g. predicting changes in consumer preferences
3. Absorption – e.g. ability of maintenance crews to come to the
rescue after an equipment breakdown

11. Referent Power
Occurs when others identify with, like, or otherwise respect the person
Associated with charismatic leadership
Occurs when others identify with them, like them, or
otherwise respect them – originates within the powerholder
Associated with charisma – personal characteristic or special
“gift” that serves as a form of interpersonal attraction and
referent power over others

12. Contingencies of Power
over others
Sources
of Power
Contingencies
of Power
Substitutability
Centrality
Discretion
Visibility
Four contingencies of power that influence whether sources of
power generate power (or not)

13. The Power of Nonsubstitutability
Your personal brand improves career success when you offer something that is valued and nonsubstitutable. “Be unique about something. Be a specialist in something. Be known for something,” advises Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu CEO Barry Salzberg (center).
Your personal brand improves career success when you offer
something that is valued and nonsubstitutable. “Be unique
about something. Be a specialist in something. Be known for
something,” advises Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu CEO Barry
Salzberg (center).

14. Increasing Nonsubstitutability
Few/no alternatives to the resource
Increase nonsubstitutability by controlling the resource
exclusive right to perform medical procedures
control over skilled labor
exclusive knowledge to repair equipment
Differentiate resource from others (i.e. be unique)
Substitutability – a contingency of power referring to the
availability of alternatives
Nonsubstitutability – few/no alternatives to the resource:
• Power is strongest when someone has a monopoly over a
valued resource
• Increase nonsubstituability by controlling access to the
resource
• Medical profession is powerful because it controls who can
perform specific medical procedures
• Labour unions that dominate an industry control access to
labour needed to perform key jobs
• Employees become nonsubstituable when they possess
knowledge that is not documented or available to others e.g
how to repair equipment
Differentiate resource from others
• e.g. some claim that consultants use this tactic

15. Centrality
Degree and nature of interdependence between the powerholder and others (reflects the person’s importance to others)
Centrality is a function of:
How many others are affected by you
How quickly others are affected by you
Contingency of power pertaining to the degree and nature of
interdependence between the powerholder and others
Centrality is a function of:
• How many others are dependent on you
• How quickly and severely others are affected by that
dependence

16. Discretion and Visibility
The freedom to exercise judgment
Rules limit discretion, limit power
Also a perception – acting as if you have discretion
Visibility
Make others aware of your presence –more face time, locate office near busy routes
Symbols communicate your power source(s)
Educational diplomas
Clothing etc (stethoscope around neck)
Discretion
• The freedom to exercise judgment rather than following
specific rules or asking for permission
• Rules limit discretion – lack of discretion makes supervisors
less powerful than their positions would indicate
• Also a perception – managers with internal locus of control act
as if they have discretion
Visibility
• Make others aware of your presence e.g. more face time,
located in visible offices—closest to elevator/coffee room
• Symbols communicate your power source(s) e.g. displaying
educational diplomas and awards to remind visitors of
expertise; medical professionals’ white coats and stethoscopes
to symbolize legitimate and expert power in hospital settings

17. Power and Influence Through Social Networks
Social networks – people connected to each other through forms of interdependence
Generate power through social capital -- goodwill and resulting resources shared among members in a social network
Three power resources through social networks
Knowledge sharing
Visibility
Referent power
Social networks – social structures of individuals or social units
that are connected to each other through one or more forms
of interdependence
Social networks generate power through social capital
• Social capital – knowledge and other resources available to
people or social units (teams, organizations) from a durable
network that connects them to others
Three power resources provided by social networks:
• Knowledge sharing – information received from other network
members, which improves the individual’s expert power
• Increased visibility – other network members think more
readily of you and mention your name when asked for
recommendations
• Referent power – people gain referent power because network
members identify more with (or at least have greater trust in)
network members

18. Social Network Ties Strong ties: Weak ties Many ties
Close-knit relationships (frequent interaction, high volume sharing, multiple roles)
Offer resources more quickly/plentifully, but less unique
Weak ties
Acquaintances
Offer unique resources not held by us or people in other networks
Many ties
Resources increase with number of ties
Limits on number of weak/strong ties one can create
Strong ties:
• Close-knit relationships – frequent interaction, share resources,
multiple relationships e.g. friend and co-worker
• Advantage – offer resources more quickly and plentifully
• Less unique – not diverse source of information/connections
Weak ties:
• Acquaintances
• Offer resources we do not possess – serve as a “bridge” to
unique resources not held by us or people in our networks –
highly effective for job seeking
Many ties:
• Resources increase with number of ties
• Limits on number of weak/strong ties one can create

19. Social Network Centrality
Person’s importance in a network
Three factors in centrality:
Betweenness – extent you are located between others in the network (i.e. information gatekeeper)
Degree centrality -- Number of people connected to you
Closeness – stronger relationships (faster/plentiful resources)
Example: “A” has highest network centrality due to all three factors; “B” has lowest centrality A B
Three factors in centrality:
1. Betweenness – the extent to which you are located between
others in the network e.g. gatekeeper who controls the flow of
information to and from many people in the network
2. Degree centrality – number or percentage of connections you
have to others in the network
3. Closeness – higher closeness occurs when a member has a
shorter, more direct, and efficient path or connections with
others in the network
Example: “A” has highest network centrality due to all three factors:
“B” has lowest centrality

20. Influencing Others
Influence -- any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behavior
Applies one or more power bases
Process through which people achieve organizational objectives
Operates up, down, and across the organizational hierarchy
Influence is any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s
attitudes or behavior
• Applies one or more power bases
• Process through which people achieve organizational objectives
• Operates up, down, and across the organizational hierarchy
e.g. executives ensure that employees complete tasks,
employees influence co-workers to help them; employees
engage in upward influence so leaders make desired decisions

21. Types of Influence Silent Authority Assertiveness
Following requests without overt influence
Based on legitimate power, role modeling
Common in high power distance cultures
Assertiveness
Actively applying legitimate and coercive power (“vocal authority”)
Reminding, confronting, checking, threatening
1. Silent authority
• Person complies with request without overt influence
• Due to requester’s legitimate power as well as the target
person’s role expectations
• Most common form of influence in high power distance
cultures
2. Assertiveness
• Vocal authority – actively applying legitimate and coercive
power to influence others
• e.g. persistently reminding an employee; using threats or
sanctions; checking employee’s work
more

22. Types of Influence (con’t)
Information Control
Manipulating others’ access to information
Withholding, filtering, re-arranging information
Coalition Formation
Group forms to gain more power than individuals alone
Pools resources/power
Legitimizes the issue
Power through social identity
3. Information control
• Manipulating someone’s access to information in order to
change their attitude or behavior e.g. withholding, filtering, rearranging
information
4. Coalition formation
• Pools power and resources of many people
• Symbolizes legitimacy – represents broad support
• Taps into social identity process – informal group advocates a
new set of norms and behavior
more

23. Types of Influence (con’t)
Upward Appeal
Appealing to higher authority
Includes appealing to firm’s goals
Alliance or perceived alliance with higher status person
Persuasion
Logic, facts, emotional appeals
Depends on persuader, message content, message medium, audience
5. Upward appeal
• Someone with higher authority or expertise is called on (in
reality or symbolically) to support the influencer’s position
• Includes appealing to firm’s policies/values/goals
• Implying support from senior executives without formally
involving them
6. Persuasion
• Ability to use facts, logical arguments, and emotional appeals
to change another person’s beliefs and attitudes
• Effectiveness depends on characteristics of the persuader,
message content, communication medium, and the audience
being persuaded e.g. people are more persuasive when
listeners believe they have expertise and credibility
• Balance of emotion and logic i.e. emotional appeals, factual
evidence, and recommendations
• Inoculation effect – warning listeners that others will try to
influence them in the future and that they should be wary
about the opponent’s arguments
more

24. Types of Influence (con’t)
Ingratiation/ Impress. Mgt.
Increase liking by, or perceived similarity to the target person
Exchange
Promising or reminding of past benefits in exchange for compliance
Includes negotiation and networking
7. Ingratiation and impression management
• Ingratiation (soft influence target) – any attempt to increase
liking by or perceived similarity to, some targeted person e.g.
agreeing with the boss’s proposal
• Impression management – practice of actively shaping our
public image (common strategy for people trying to get ahead)
8. Exchange
• Promise of benefits or resources in exchange for compliance
• Negotiation is an integral aspect
• Norm of reciprocity – reminding the target of past benefits or
favors
• Networking – active networkers build up “exchange credits”

25. Consequences of Influence Tactics
people oppose the behavior desired by the influencer
motivated by external sources (rewards) to implement request
identify with and highly motivated to implement request
Resistance
• People oppose the behavior desired by the influencer
• Refuse, argue, or delay to engage in the behavior
Compliance
• Motivated to implement the influencer’s request at a minimal
level of effort
• Compliance would not occur without external sources (e.g.
rewards) to prompt the behavior
Commitment
• Strongest outcome of influence
• People identify with the influencer’s request and are highly
motivated to implement – even when extrinsic sources of
motivation are no longer present
Resistance
Compliance
Commitment

26. Consequences of Influence Tactics
Hard Influence Tactics
Silent authority
Upward appeal
Coalition formation
Information control
Assertiveness
Persuasion
Ingratiation & impression mgt
Exchange
Soft Influence Tactics
Hard influence tactics
• Rely on position power – legitimate, reward and coercion
• Tend to produce compliance or resistance and may undermine
trust
Soft influence tactics
• Rely on personal sources of power i.e. expert and referent –
which tend to build commitment to the influencer’s request
Resistance
Compliance
Commitment

27. Contingencies of Influence Tactics
“Soft” tactics generally more acceptable than “hard” tactics
Appropriate influence tactic depends on:
Influencer’s power base
Organizational position
Cultural values and expectations
“Soft” tactics generally more acceptable than “hard” tactics
Appropriate influence tactic depends on:
1. Influencer’s power base – e.g. people with expertise may be
successful using persuasion; people with strong legitimate power
base may be successful using silent authority
2. Organizational position – whether person being influenced is
higher, lower or at the same level in the organization e.g.
employees may face consequences be being too assertive with
their boss
3. Personal, organizational, and cultural values
• Person with strong power orientation is comfortable using
assertiveness
• Organization with a learning orientation would likely encourage
influence through persuasion
• Societal culture determines preferred influence tactic e.g.
ingratiation is much more common in the U.S. than Hong Kong
(expectation of more distant roles in Hong Kong)

28. Organizational Politics
Behaviors that others perceive as self-serving tactics for personal gain at the expense of other people and possibly the organization.
Behaviors that others perceive as self-serving tactics for
personal gain at the expense of other people and possibly the
organization

29. Conditions that Encourage Organizational Politics
Scarce resources – to safeguard own resources
Ambiguous resource allocation decisions
Organizational change – due to uncertainty, ambiguity
1. Scare resources
• Try to safeguard and secure resources, maintain status quo
2. Complex and ambiguous decision rules
• Try to influence the factors that shape the decision
3. Organizational change
• Act politically to protect valued resources, position, and selfconcept

30. Minimizing Political Behavior
Introduce clear rules for scarce resources
Effective organizational change practices
Suppress norms that support or tolerate self-serving behavior
Leaders role model organizational citizenship
Give employees more control over their work
Keep employees informed
1. Introduce clear rules to specify the use of scarce resources
2. Effective organizational change practices
3. Manage group norms to curtail self-serving influence activities
4. Leaders become role models of organizational citizenship
5. Give employees more control over their own work
6. Keep employees informed of organizational events

31. Power and Influence in the Workplace