1. White Dwarf Stage Stars with masses less than 8 times the sun's cannot fuse carbon and oxygen into heavier elements. These stars collapse into white dwarfs. At the final stage of the collapse, the outer layer's of the star are blown off to form a planetary nebula

2. White dwarf stars have no internal source of energy; the light they emit comes from stored heat. Because they are so small, the cooling process is very gradual. A white dwarf can exist for about 50 trillion years before becoming to cool to emit light. White dwarfs don't collapse further because of a quantum effect called electron degeneracy pressure. This process cannot support a structure whose mass exceeds 1.44 times the sun's mass.

3. Descent to White Dwarf

5. Cooling Embers

6. Mass-Radius for Degenerate Stars

7. Mass-Radius for White Dwarf

8. Mass-Radius for White Dwarfs

9. MS Mass – W Dwarf Radius

10. Pre SN core

11. Pre SN Core to scale

12. Multiple Shell Burning

13. Timescales to Supernova

14. Iron catastrophe

15. Heavy element synthesis

16. Cosmic Abundance

17. Neutron stars If the mass of a supernova remnant is less than 3 solar masses, a neutron star is formed. This object is a neutron ball between 10 and 20 miles in diameter! The structure doesn't collapse further because of neutron degeneracy pressure.

19. Pulsars Most neutron stars cannot be detected optically. Most are detected because they emit radio waves in short bursts whose period matches their rotation rate. These objects are called pulsars.

20. Pulsar

21. Size vs Period

22. Gravity versus Thermodynamics

23. Mass-Radius plot

24. Black Holes Stars with masses greater than 3 solar masses collapse into black holes. The gravity of a black hole is so strong that its escape velocity exceeds the velocity of light. The boundary of a black hole is called the event horizon.

25. Black Hole Collapse

26. Space-Time Warp At the Scwarzchild Radius Space-time is warped to such an extent that space and time reverse roles The spatial direction pointing to the centre takes the role of time Once across the Horizon, continuing to the singularity at the centre is as inevitable as going from the past into the future !

27. Falling in By your watch, you cross the event horizon at 12:00 The light coming from you between 11:58 and 11:59 is so time dilated that someone watching from a great distance sees the light spread out over a hundred years Similarly, you see a hundred years’ worth of light coming from the outside world in that minute. The light coming from you between 11:59 and 12:00 is so time dilated that someone watching from a great distance sees the light spread out over an infinite time ! You see an infinity’s worth of light in that last minute, the whole history of the universe ( perhaps more )

28. Event Horizon is inside ordinary objects

29. Black hole Contained within event horizon

30. Black Hole Observation