1. Attitudes and Consistency
Chapter 3
Attitudes and Consistency
Prepared by Robert Gass & John Seiter
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What is an attitude?
Definition: An attitude is “a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor “(Eagly & Chaiken 1993, p. 1)
Attitudes :
are learned predispositions to respond
tend to correspond with behavior
are evaluative, e.g., favorable or unfavorable
vary in degree or intensity
are directed toward something
Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. New York: Harcourt,
Brace, Jovanovich.
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3. Explicit attitude measures
Likert scales
Known as “equal appearing interval” scales
5-7 scale points
Ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree
Uncertainty regarding the neutral point
Example of a Likert-Type Scale Item
The death penalty should be abolished.
_____ _____ _____ _____ _____
strongly moderately neutral/ moderately strongly
agree agree not sure disagree disagree
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4. Explicit attitude measures
Semantic Differential Scales
Based on the connotations of words
Relies on bipolar adjectives (antonyms)
5-7 scale points
Respondent checks the “semantic space” between the antonyms
Uncertainty regarding the neutral space
Sample scale items from McCroskey’s Ethos Scale
Kanye West
expert ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ inexpert
unselfish ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ selfish
timid ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ bold
tense ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ relaxed
trained ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ untrained
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5. Visually oriented scales
Visual analog scale (VAS)
How much do you favor establishing a federal handgun registry?
strongly strongly
oppose favor
“Smiley face” scale
Which face best reflects your attitude toward establishing a federal handgun registry?
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6. Pitfalls in measuring attitudes
Social Desirability Bias
Respondents may provide the “socially correct” response
Non-Attitudes
Respondents may make up opinions so as not to appear uninformed
Mindfulness
Respondents may not be aware of their own attitudes
Note, these are only some of the problems with measuring attitudes.
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7. Implicit Attitude MEasures
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
Respondents are quicker to identify adjectives that reflect their attitudes, slower to identify adjectives contrary to their attitudes
Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP)
Respondents are primed with a positive or negative image (for example a liked or disliked politician)
Respondents then rate a neutral stimulus (Chinese character)
Evaluations of the primed stimulus are misattributed, e.g., projected onto the neutral stimulus
Evaluative Priming
Response times, for example pressing a key, are faster for attitude congruent words than attitude incongruent words
Video clips of Anderson Cooper explaining the Implicit Association Test can be found at the links below
A demonstration of the Implicit Association Test can be found at the link below
A demonstration of the Affect Misattribution Procedure can be found at the link below
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8. Other Ways of Measuring Attitudes
Appearances
Clothing, artifacts, and other appearance cues
Risk of faulty sign reasoning
Associations
Memberships, affiliations, social networks
Segmentation; soccer moms, NASCAR dads, millenials, etc.
Behavior
Actions, habits, lifestyles
“thin slices” of behavior can be revealing
Physiological measures
Galvanic skin response, facial electromyography, fMRI
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9. Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
Developed by Fishbein & Ajzen in the 1970’s
The TRA is a “rational” model of persuasion
It presumes people are rational decision makers
It presumes people make use of available information
Behavioral intentions are the best predictor of actual behavior
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10. Theory of Reasoned Action
Adapted from Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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11. Illustration of the TRA
Ned has begun drinking heavily since he started college Attitude toward the behavior: “I think drinking is ruining my health and it caused me to get fired from my job.” Subjective Norm component: “I know my friends and family would like me to stop drinking.” Intention: “I intend to stop drinking altogether.” Behavior: Ned attends his first AA meeting the next day
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12. Theory of Planned Behavior (TpB)
An extension of the TRA
The TpB adds the additional element of perceived behavioral control (self-efficacy)
Internal factors might prevent or reduce control (lack of knowledge, lack of skill)
External factors might prevent or reduce control (limited time or resources)
Intentions correlate more strongly with actual behavior when there is perceived behavioral control
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13. Persistence of attitudes
Attitudes formed via central processing are more enduring
increasing a person’s motivation to attend the message will increase central processing
improving a person’s ability to attend to a message will increase central processing
Attitudes formed via peripheral processing are more short-lived
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Associative networks
Attitudes exist in associative networks Persuaders seek to establish connections among attitudes The goal is to link their product, brand, idea to favorable attitudes
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15. Manufacturing Associations
Brands and Branding
brands are matched with idealized lifestyles
Symbols are appropriated and paired with brands
Brand Personality
Associations endow brands with human qualities; fun, sophisticated, tough, youthful
aspirational brands, economical brands, authentic brands
Cause-related marketing and Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
Sloganeering
Slogans foster favorable associations.
“Breakfast of Champions” (Wheaties)
“Diamonds are forever” (DeBeers)
Sponsorship
Brought to you by…
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16. Example of associations and branding
A teen admires a particular brand, image, or lifestyle
For example, iPhones and iTunes
A new product is paired with that brand or lifestyle
Ads for a new energy drink show teens listening to their iPods while enjoying the drink
The teen comes to equate the product with the brand
The energy drink seems to go with iPhones and iTunes
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17. Psychological consistency
People desire consistency
People prefer a state of harmony among their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors
Inconsistency causes psychological discomfort
The magnitude of dissonance
The degree of psychological discomfort depends on the centrality of the attitudes
Greater attitude salience results in greater dissonance
People are motivated to restore consistency
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18. Parenting and consistency theory
A child admires Popeye The child doesn’t like to eat spinach Popeye is positively associated with spinach This is a cognitively imbalanced state, which should motivate the child to change one of the associations
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19. Balanced vs. imbalanced psychological states
Any combination of even minus signs, or all plus signs is psychologically comfortable
Imbalanced psychological states
Any combination of odd minus signs, or all minus signs is psychologically uncomfortable + - + -
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20. Methods of maintaining consistency
Denial: ignoring the inconsistency Bolstering: adding rationalizations Bargaining: trying to reach a psychological compromise Differentiation: distinguishing between the conflicting and non- conflicting elements Transcendence: looking at the larger picture Modifying one or more attitudes: changing one or more associations Communicating: convincing others one is being consistent
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Cognitive dissonance
People seek to maintain a stable, positive, self- concept People rationalize their choices and actions in light of their self-concept Behavior that contradicts one’s beliefs or self- concept causes dissonance Making a decision produces dissonance or “buyer’s remorse” The more important the decision, the greater the dissonance
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22. Example of dissonance in action
Lyle, a commuter, buys a large, 4 X 4, SUV Soon afterward, the price of gasoline soars Every time he fills up the tank, he experiences dissonance
Some ways Lyle could reduce his dissonance:
Convince himself the “gas guzzler” would also be safer in a crash
Take up off-road sports to justify the vehicle’s other capabilities
Coach a soccer team or little league team to justify having all those seats
Sell or trade-in the car at a loss and chalk it up to “experience”
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23. The magnitude of dissonance
Free choice paradigm
the more free choice one has in making a decision, the more dissonance one will suffer
Belief disconfirmation
Exposure to information contrary to strongly held beliefs may increase adherence to those beliefs (e.g., stubbornness)
Induced compliance
When a person is forced to do something, little dissonance is aroused
The person can rationalize the action by saying “I had no choice”
Effort justification
The greater the effort or sacrifice involved, the greater the dissonance
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24. Ways of reducing dissonance
Rationalizing
which is not the same as being rational
Selective exposure
Paying attention only to information that supports the choice made
Avoiding information that is inconsistent with the choice made
Polarization of alternatives
Exaggerating the differences between the alternatives once the choice is made
Any of the strategies for maintaining cognitive consistency
Denial
Bolstering
Bargaining
Differentiation
Transcendence
Modifying one or more cognitions
Communicating
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25. Psychological reactance
Also known as “reverse psychology”
Backlash: A perceived threat to one’s freedom produces a defensive reaction
Forbidden fruit: Outlawing something may make it even more attractive
Examples:
A pushy salesperson may drive customers away
When restrictions are placed on firearms, firearm sales increase dramatically before the ban takes effect
A parent who criticizes a daughter’s boyfriend may drive the daughter into the boyfriend’s arms
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Playing “Devil’s Advocate”: Advocating a contrary position shifts one’s attitudes toward the contrary position
No external incentives should be present
The advocacy should be volitional (not compelled)
The advocacy should be public (in writing or out loud)
The person will internalize the choice to advocate the contrary position
The person’s attitudes will shift (partially) toward the contrary position
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commitment
Once we are committed to a course of action, it is hard to turn back
A car owner may “throw good money after bad” making one repair after another
Gamblers may double their bets every time they lose
Social customs are designed to increase commitments
Wedding customs
Initiation rituals
Commitments can grow legs
People add additional justifications for their original decision
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