1. Organic Reactions

2. Point #1 3 basic kinds of reactions A) Addition Reactions (like synthesis reactions) Hydrogenation – saturating an unsaturated carbon chain – alkene/yne to alkane Hydration – alkene to alcohol Halogenation/Hydrohalogenation – alkane to haloalkane – alkene to haloalkane

3. B) Elimination Reactions (like synthesis reactions because they result in larger compounds) Condensation – Esterification – Formation of alkene – Formation of amide (peptide bond)

4. C) Substitution Reactions (like single or double replacement reactions where one atom/ion/functional group is replaced by another) S N 1 S N 2

5. Point #2 Basic process of organic reactions is through attraction of positively (electrophile) and negatively (nucleophile) charged parts of molecules

6. ElectrophilesNucleophiles  “loves electrons” = attracted to negative charge  “loves nuclei” = attracted to positive charge  maybe positively charged or have deficit of electrons b/c atom is attached to very electronegative atom  often negatively charged or  lone pairs  high electronegativity  carbon of carbonyl group  acids  alkenes  Hydroxide –OH  Chloride –Cl  Ammonia – NH 3

7. – many organic reactions happen through the attraction of electrophiles for nucleophiles – in reaction mechanisms, curly arrows show how electrons move – generally electrons from nucleophile move to electrophile

8. Point #3 Alkanes/Alkenes are relatively inert compared to other functional groups A) Alkenes have pi bonds in which electrons are easily accessible b/c they aren’t trapped between two nuclei as sigma bonding electrons are.

9. B) Other functional groups have highly electronegative atoms like O, N or halogens

10. The table below gives the characteristic reactions for several functional groups Functional Group AdditionEliminationSubstitution Alkane Halogenation (haloalkanes) Alkene  Hydrohalogenation (mono-haloalkanes,)  Hydration (alcohols)  Halogenation (di- haloalkanes)  Hydrogenation (alkanes)  Oxidation (-OH, C=O, COOH) Alcohol Condensation  w/ COOH to (ester)  w/ conc. acid or catalyst (alkene) Oxidation (aldehyde, ketone, COOH) Carboxylic Acid Condensation with –OH (ester) Amine Condensation w/ COOH (amide)

11. Reactions Example #1-Halogenation of alkane – Alkane + halogen gas  haloalkane – Need ultraviolet light for rxn to occur – Depending on time and amount of reactants, more than one halogen can added to the alkane

12. Free radical is a element or molecule with an unpaired electron Homolytic fission vs Heterolytic fission: – Fission means splitting apart – Heterolytic means that one atom takes both electrons in the bond and two ions are formed. – Homolytic means the bond is split in half – each side takes 1 electron and 2 free radicals are formed -Reaction occurs through homolytic fission to form a free radical Formation of free radicals often results in chain reactions – reaction keeps occurring until all reactant is used up. See polymerization notes form mechanism.

13. Example #2-Hydrohalogenation – Alkene + acid halide  monohaloalkane – Halide ion adds to larger side (more substituted side of alkene) if there is one Hydrohalogenation of ethene Hydrohalogenation of 1-propene

14. Reaction occurs through heterolytic fission to form an ion The first step is the attraction of the electrophile (Hydrogen ion) to the electrons in the pi bond. This forms a carbocation. The carbocation that is more substituted (has more carbons attached to it) is the most stable. The negatively charged halogen (nucleophile) adds to the carbocation to form the halogenated alkene.

15. Example #3-Hydration – Alkene + water in acidic solution  alcohol – Acid acts as catalyst in rxn – –OH group adds to larger side (more substituted side) of alkene – Uses: hydration is used for commercial manufacture of ethanol Hydration of ethene Hydration of 1-propene

16. Example #4 -Halogenation – Alkene + halogen gas  1,2-dihaloalkane – Diatomic gas has two atoms – both add to opposite sides of the double bond (and opposite sides of the molecule) – Uses: Chlorine + ethane  1,2-dichloroethane: used as starting material for PVC – Uses: Br 2 dissolved in dichloromethane is used to distinguish between alkenes and alkanes. If reddish-brown color of Br 2 disappears when added to unknown, the unknown has alkenes in it.

17. Example #5 Hydrogenation – Alkene + Hydrogen gas (with catalyst)  alkane – Hydrogenation is saturating an unsaturated hydrocarbon – Addition Reaction – Heterogeneous Catalyst: Pd or PtO 2 (rxn occurs on a metal surface) – Uses: unsaturated vegetable oils are saturated to produce saturated fats (more solid at room temp than unsaturated) for margarines

18. Example #6 Esterification – Carboxylic acid + alcohol  ester + water – Reaction conditions: acidic solution – The OH group on the carboxylic acid is replaced by the alcohols O-R group – Condensation reaction: produces water – Uses: flavouring agents, plasticizers, as solvents in perfume, polyesters

19. Examples #7 Amide formation – Carboxylic acid + amine  amide + water – Reaction condition: difficult to conduct in simple steps – The OH group on the carboxylic acid is replaced by the amine (NH-R) – Condensation rxn: produces water – Uses: peptide bond formation, polymerization reactions to make nylons

20. Example #8 Oxidation of alcohol – Alcohol + oxidizing agent  COOH (1 , complete) /Aldehyde (1 , partial)/Ketone (2  ) – Obviously an Oxidation reaction – Reaction condition: aqueous, acidic solution. The carboxylic acid and the aldehyde can be obtained through different experimental set-ups Distill to get aldehyde Heat under reflux to get COOH

21. Oxidation of alcohol (continued) – Complete Oxidation: primary alcohol + oxidizing agent  carboxylic acid

22. Oxidation of alcohol (continued) Partial Oxidation: primary alcohol + oxidizing agent  aldehyde

23. Oxidation of alcohol (continued) Secondary alcohol + oxidizing agent  ketone

24. Example #9 Condensation of alcohol – Condensation of alcohol  alkene – Reaction conditions: 170  and concentrated sulfuric acid or H 3 PO 4 and a catalyst or Al 2 O 3 and a catalyst