1. The Digestive system

2. Movements of the Small Intestine  The movement of small intestine are 2 types  Mixing contractions  Propulsive contractions

3. Mixing Contractions (segmentation contractions)  Segmentation contractions are ring like contractions that appear at fairly regular intervals along the gut and then disappear and are replaced by another set of ring contractions in the segment between the previous contractions.  They move the chyme to and fro and increase its exposure to the mucosal surface. Relaxation Contraction

4. Propulsive Contractions (Peristalsis)  Peristalsis is a reflex response that is initiated when the gut wall is expanded by the contents of the lumen  The expand initiates a circular contraction behind the stimulus and an area of relaxation in front of it.  The wave of contraction propel the chyme forward. Peristalsis Peristaltic contraction Leading wave of distention

5. Basic Mechanism of Gastric HCl Secretion  The parietal cells contain a system of intracellular canaliculi.  The hydrochloric acid is formed at the membrane of these canaliculi and then conducted through opening to the exterior.  Mechanism of HCl secretion is consists of several steps.

6. Basic Mechanism of Gastric HCl Secretion (cont.) Step # 1  Finally, CO 2, either formed during metabolism in the cell or entering the cell from the blood, combines under the influence of carbonic anhydrase with the OH - to form HCO 3 -.  This then diffuses out of the cell cytoplasm into the extracellular fluid in exchange for Cl - that enter the from extracellular fliud and later secreted into the canaliculus.

7. Basic Mechanism of Gastric HCl Secretion (cont.) Step # 2  The H + is then actively secreted into the lumen in exchange for K +, catalyzed by H + -K + ATPase.  H + take their place in lumen, giving a strong solution of HCl in the lumen with Cl -.

8. Basic Mechanism of Gastric HCl Secretion (cont.) Step #3  Chloride ion actively transported from cytoplasm of the parietal cell into the lumen of the lumen.  And sodium ions are actively transported out of the lumen.  These 2 effects create a negative potential of -40 to -70 millivolts.  Which in turn causes passive diffusion of positively charged potassium ions and a small number of sodium ions from the cell cytoplasm to lumen.

9. Basic Mechanism of Gastric HCl Secretion (cont.) Interstitial fluid Gastric Lumen H+H+ HCO 3 - K+K+ Na + Cl - K+K+ K+K+ Parietal cell K+K+ K+K+ H+H+ + CO 2 + H 2 O H 2 CO 3 Carbonic anhydrase ATP cAMP Cl -

10. Phases of Gastric Secretion  Gastric secretion occur in 3 phases:  Cephalic phase  Gastric phase  Intestinal phase

11. Phases of Gastric Secretion (cont.) 1.Cephalic phase  This phase occurs even before food enters the stomach, especially while it is being eaten  Its results from the sight, smell, though or taste of food  The greater the appetite, the more intense is the stimulation.  Neurogenic signals that cause the cephalic phase originate in the cerebral cortex or in the appetite centers of the amygdala or hypothalamus.  This phase of secretion normally accounts for about 20% of the gastric secretion associate with eating a meal.

12. Phases of Gastric Secretion (cont.) 2. Gastric phase  Once the food enter the stomach it excites:  Vagal reflexes  Local nervous secretory reflexes and  Gastrin stimulation  all of which in turn cause secretion of gastric juice during several hours while the food remains in the stomach.  This phase of secretion accounts for about 70% of the total gastric secretion associate with eating a meal.

13. Phases of Gastric Secretion (cont.) 3. Intestinal phase  The presence of food in the upper portion of the small intestine, particularly in the duodenum cause the stomach to secrete small amount of gastric juice  Probably, partly because of small amounts of gastrin and CCK that are released by the duodenum mucosa in response to distention or because of chemical stimuli.

14. Process of Absorption  Simple diffusion  Active transport  Facilitated diffusion  Pinocytosis

15. Process of Absorption (cont.) Simple diffusion  It refers to the natural tendency of any substances to move from an area of high concentration to one of low concentration (through semi-permeable membrane). Criteria of simple diffusion  Diffusion shows first order kinetics. Eg. Diffusion rate is proportional to the concentration difference across the cell membrane.  Cellular energy is not required.  The process does not become saturated and is not inhibited by other substance  It depends on size of particles.

16. Process of Absorption (cont.) Active diffusion Criteria of active transport  Transfer against concentration gradient (ie. From lower to higher concentration).  This process expend cellular energy  Carrier mediated diffusion, saturable process.  More rapid transfer than by simple diffusion.

17. Facilitated diffusion Criteria of facilitated diffusion  Carrier madiated  No need of energy  Transfer along the concentration gradient (higher to lower) (example: vitamin B 12 absorption) Process of Absorption (cont.)

18. Absorption of Carbohydrate  Glucose and galactose are absorbed by the active process with the help of carrier by a process called sodium co-transport theory for glucose transport.  The carrier protein has receptor sites for both a glucose molecule and a sodium ion.  Glucose is transported whenever Na + is transported.  Then from the cell, glucose is transported into blood stream by the facilitated diffusion.  Fructose is also transported by facilitated diffusion, all the way through the intestinal epithelium but not coupled with sodium transport.  On entering the cell, much of the fructose becomes phosphorylated, then converted to glucose and  Finally transported in the form of glucose the rest of the way into the paracellular space.

19. Absorption of Protein  There are at least seven different systems transport amino acids into electrolytes.  Five of which require Na + and co-transport amino acids and Na +. Two of these also require Cl -.  And the rest two systems transport is independent of Na +.  Di- and tripeptides are transported into enterocytes by a system that requires H + instead of Na +. There is very little absorption for large peptides.

20. Absorption of Fat  Fats are digested to form monoglycerides and free fatty acid.  Both of these digestive end products become dissolved in the central lipid portion of the bile micelles.  In this form, the monoglycerides and the fatty acids are carried to the surface of the microvilli of the intestinal brush border and then penetrate into the recesses among moving, agitating microvilli.

21. Absorption of Fat (cont.)  Both, the monoglycerides and the fatty acids diffuse immediately from the micelle and then through the membrane of the microvilli to the interior of the cell.  This leaves the bile micelles still in the chyme, where they function again and again to help absorb still more monoglycerides and fatty acids.  Thus, the micelles perform a “ferrying” function that is highly important for absorption.

22. Absorption of Fat (cont.) Absorption of cholesterol and other sterols:  Cholesterol is readily absorbed from the small intestine if bile, fatty acids and pancreatic juice are present.  Closely related sterols of plant origin are poorly absobed.  Almost all the absorbed cholesterol is incorporated into chylomicrons that enter the circulation via the lymphatics.  Nonabsorbable plant sterols such as those found in soybeans reduce the absorption of cholesterol  Probably by competing with cholesterol for esterification with fatty acids.

23. Absorption of Fat (cont.)

24. Absorption of Water and Electrolytes (cont.) Sodium  Some Na + diffuses into or out of the small intestine depending on the concentration gradient.  Because the luminal membrane of all enterocytes in the small intestine and colon are permeable to Na +, and  Their basolateral membrane contain Na + -K + -ATPase.  Na + is also actively absorbed throughout the small and large intestine.

25. Absorption of Water and Electrolytes (cont.) Potassium  There are some secretion of K + into the intestinal lumen, especially as a component of mucus  But for the most part, the movement of K + across gastrointestinal mucosa is due to diffusion.  There are also some K + channels in the luminal as well as the basolateral membrane of the enterocytes of the colon.  In addition, K + moves passively down its electrochemical gradient.

26. Absorption of Water and Electrolytes (cont.) Chloride  Cl- normally enters enterocytes from the interstitial fluid via Na + -K + -2Cl - co-transporters in their basolateral membranes and  the Cl - is then secreted into the intestinal lumen via channels that are regulated by various protein kinase.

27. Absorption of Vitamins and Minerals Vitamins  Absorption of water-soluble vitamins is rapid  But absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K is deficient if fat absorption is depressed.  Most vitamins are absorbed in the upper small intestine, but vitamin B 12 is absorbed in the ileum.  Vitamin B 12 absorption and folate absorption are Na + independent.  But seven other remaining water-soluble vitamin- thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, pantothenate, biotin and ascorbic acid are absorbed by carriers that are Na+ cotransporters.

28. Gastrointestinal Diseases  Gastric ulcer  Duodenal ulcer  Diarrhea  Constipation  Dysentery