1. Prof. Busch - LSU1 Simplifications of Context-Free Grammars

2. Prof. Busch - LSU2 A Substitution Rule Substitute Equivalent grammar

3. Prof. Busch - LSU3 Equivalent grammar Substitute

4. Prof. Busch - LSU4 In general: Substitute equivalent grammar

5. Prof. Busch - LSU5 Nullable Variables Nullable Variable: Example: Nullable variable

6. Prof. Busch - LSU6 Substitute Removing After we remove all the all the nullable variables disappear (except for the start variable)

7. Prof. Busch - LSU7 Unit-Productions Unit Production: (a single variable in both sides) Example: Unit Productions

8. Prof. Busch - LSU8 Substitute Removal of unit productions:

9. Prof. Busch - LSU9 Remove can be removed immediately Unit productions of form

10. Prof. Busch - LSU10 Substitute

11. Prof. Busch - LSU11 Remove repeated productions Final grammar

12. Prof. Busch - LSU12 Useless Productions Some derivations never terminate... Useless Production

13. Prof. Busch - LSU13 Another grammar: Not reachable from S Useless Production

14. Prof. Busch - LSU14 In general: If there is a derivation Then variable is useful Otherwise, variable is useless consists of terminals

15. Prof. Busch - LSU15 A production is useless if any of its variables is useless Productions useless Variables useless

16. Prof. Busch - LSU16 Example Grammar: Removing Useless Variables and Productions

17. Prof. Busch - LSU17 First: find all variables that can produce strings with only terminals or Round 1: Round 2: (possible useful variables) (the right hand side of production that has only terminals) (the right hand side of a production has terminals and variables of previous round) This process can be generalized

18. Prof. Busch - LSU18 Then, remove productions that use variables other than

19. Prof. Busch - LSU19 Second: Find all variables reachable from Use a Dependency Graph where nodes are variables unreachable

20. Prof. Busch - LSU20 Keep only the variables reachable from S Final Grammar Contains only useful variables

21. Prof. Busch - LSU21 Removing All Step 1: Remove Nullable Variables Step 2: Remove Unit-Productions Step 3: Remove Useless Variables This sequence guarantees that unwanted variables and productions are removed

22. Prof. Busch - LSU22 Normal Forms for Context-free Grammars

23. Prof. Busch - LSU23 Chomsky Normal Form Each production has form: variable or terminal

24. Prof. Busch - LSU24 Examples: Not Chomsky Normal Form Chomsky Normal Form

25. Prof. Busch - LSU25 Conversion to Chomsky Normal Form Example: Not Chomsky Normal Form We will convert it to Chomsky Normal Form

26. Prof. Busch - LSU26 Introduce new variables for the terminals:

27. Prof. Busch - LSU27 Introduce new intermediate variable to break first production:

28. Prof. Busch - LSU28 Introduce intermediate variable:

29. Prof. Busch - LSU29 Final grammar in Chomsky Normal Form: Initial grammar

30. Prof. Busch - LSU30 From any context-free grammar (which doesn’t produce ) not in Chomsky Normal Form we can obtain: an equivalent grammar in Chomsky Normal Form In general:

31. Prof. Busch - LSU31 The Procedure First remove: Nullable variables Unit productions (Useless variables optional)

32. Prof. Busch - LSU32 Then, for every symbol : In productions with length at least 2 replace with Add production New variable: Productions of form do not need to change!

33. Prof. Busch - LSU33 Replace any production with New intermediate variables:

34. Prof. Busch - LSU34 Observations Chomsky normal forms are good for parsing and proving theorems It is easy to find the Chomsky normal form for any context-free grammar (which doesn’t generate )

35. Prof. Busch - LSU35 Greinbach Normal Form All productions have form: symbolvariables

36. Prof. Busch - LSU36 Examples: Greinbach Normal Form Not Greinbach Normal Form

37. Prof. Busch - LSU37 Conversion to Greinbach Normal Form: Greinbach Normal Form

38. Prof. Busch - LSU38 Observations Greinbach normal forms are very good for parsing strings (better than Chomsky Normal Forms) However, it is difficult to find the Greinbach normal of a grammar