1. Kingdom Fungi
Eukaryotic, cell walls made of chitin, saprophytic or parasitic and essential as decomposers.

2. The body of a fungus is called the mycelium
The body of a fungus is called the mycelium. The mycelium is composed of hyphae, which are hair-like filaments. They are usually haploid or 1N.
The reproductive structures are the part of the fungus that you usually see (ex. mushroom). These structures produce spores either asexually by mitosis or sexually by meiosis. The names of the four divisions of fungi are related to the shape of their sporangiophores or lack thereof.

3. The Filamentous Body of a Fungus
(c) Hyphal Cells (cutaway)
(a) Mycelium
Haploid Nuclei
Cytoplasm
(a) A fungal mycelium spreads over decaying vegetation. The mycelium is composed of (b) a tangle of microscopic hyphae, only one cell thick, (c) portrayed in cross section to show their internal organization.
Septum
(b) Individual Hyphae
Pore
Cell Walls

4. Phyla of Fungi Chytridiomycota – chytrids Zygomycota – zygote fungi
Ascomycota – sac fungi
Basidomycota – club fungi
Deuteromycota – imperfect fungi

5. Chytridiomycota Most live in water
Have flagellated spores which move through water (unique to Chytrids)

6. Chytrid Filaments Male Female
These filaments of the chytrid fungus Allomyces are in the midst of sexual reproduction. The orange structures visible on many of the filaments will release male gametes; the clear structure will release female gametes. Chytrid gametes are flagellated, and these swimming reproductive structures aid dispersal of members of this mostly aquatic phylum.
Female

7. Fungal Reproduction Asexual Sexual Fragmentation
Continuation of haploid cells by mitosis
Sexual
Fusion of two haploid nuclei
Diploid zygotes
Ultimately produce haploid sexual spores
Germinate to produce haploid mycelium

8. Division Zygomycota = bread molds
This is the most primitive type of fungus.
The hyphae are multinucleate, without separate cells or cell walls.
Lots of sporangiophores with sporangia
are produced that asexually make spores by mitosis.
Occasionally two hyphae will fuse. One (-) and one (+) and a 2N zygosporangium is formed. This zygosporangium is capable of withstanding harsh conditions. The DNA in it will undergo meiosis to produce a 1N nucleus which then grows into an asexually reproducing sporangiophore.
The most common example is Rhizopus nigricans, the common black bread mold.

9. Zygomycete Life Cycle (a)
Spores (haploid)
Sporangia
(a) Top: During asexual reproduction in the black bread mold (genus Rhizopus), haploid spores, produced within (b) sporangia, disperse and germinate on food such as bread. The resulting haploid hyphae may complete the asexual cycle by producing sporangia and spores.
Diploid 2n
Zygospore germinates
Haploid 1n
Hyphae of opposite mating types fuse to form zygospore.
(b) Photo of Sporangia

10. Zygomycete Life Cycle (b)
Hyphae of opposite mating types (+ & -) fuse.
Zygospore germinates
(a) Top: During asexual reproduction in the black bread mold (genus Rhizopus), haploid spores, produced within (b) sporangia, disperse and germinate on food such as bread. The resulting haploid hyphae may complete the asexual cycle by producing sporangia and spores.
NUCLEI FUSE
MEIOSIS
Diploid 2n
Diploid Zygospore formed
Haploid 1n

11. Pilobolus: An Explosive Zygomycete on cow dung
The delicate, translucent reproductive structures of the zygomycete Pilobolus will literally blow their tops when ripe, dispersing the black caps with their payload of spores.

12. Division Ascomycota = the sac fungi
Ascocarps contain asci. Within each ascus are eight ascospores. Four were made by meiosis and the number was doubled by mitosis. This is the sexual structure of this division.
These fungi also reproduce asexually with spores called conidia.
Common examples are yeast, Sordaria, truffles, morels, Peach leaf curl and cup fungi.
Yeast are the oddballs out of this group. They have grown to exist without hyphae and reproduce asexually by budding.

13. Each sac contains 8 ascospores ex.Sordaria

14. Some Ascomycetes (a) Scarlet Cup Fungus (b) Morel
(a) The cup-shaped fruiting body of the scarlet cup fungus
(b) The morel, an edible delicacy. (Consult an expert before sampling any wild fungus—some are deadly!)
(b) Morel

15. Truffles
Truffles, rare ascomycetes (each about the size of a small apple), are a gastronomic delicacy.

16. Yeasts
Yeasts are unusual, normally nonfilamentous ascomycetes that reproduce most commonly by budding. The yeast shown here is Candida, a common cause of vaginal infections.
Candida sp.

17. Ascus Vs. Basidium

18. Division Basidiomycota = club fungi
The most common state for this fungus is an N + N stage called dikaryogamy. It occurs after a (+) and a (-) hyphae fuse. The nuclei, however, do not fuse, and new N+N cells are made into a reproductive structure such as the mushroom.
A basidiocarp contains thousands of basidia which produce spores sexually by meiosis.
Karyogamy, when the two nuclei fuse, occurs immediately before meiosis.
Examples of basidiomycetes are puffballs, mushrooms, shelf fungi, rusts and smuts.

19. Basidia with basidiospores = club shaped

20. Basidiomycete Life Cycle
Haploid Nuclei
Fusion forms diploid zygote.
Basidia on gills
The mushroom (top left) is a reproductive structure formed from aggregated hyphae made up of cells that each contain two haploid nuclei. Within the cap, leaflike gills bear numerous basidia (top right). Within each basidium, the two haploid nuclei fuse, producing a diploid zygote. The zygote then undergoes meiosis, forming haploid basidiospores that are released from the basidia (right). After dispersal by wind or water, the basidiospores germinate, forming haploid hyphae. When hyphae of different mating types meet, some of the cells fuse. These cells, each containing two haploid nuclei, produce an extensive underground mycelium (bottom). Under appropriate conditions, portions of the mycelium aggregate, swell, and differentiate, poking up through the soil as mushrooms and completing the cycle.
MEIOSIS
Basidiospores (haploid)
Haploid 1n
Mushroom gills bear reproductive basidia.
Diploid 2n

21. Basidiomycete Life Cycle
Basidiospores (haploid)
Basidia on gills
Hyphae aggregate to form mushroom
The mushroom (top left) is a reproductive structure formed from aggregated hyphae made up of cells that each contain two haploid nuclei. Within the cap, leaflike gills bear numerous basidia (top right). Within each basidium, the two haploid nuclei fuse, producing a diploid zygote. The zygote then undergoes meiosis, forming haploid basidiospores that are released from the basidia (right). After dispersal by wind or water, the basidiospores germinate, forming haploid hyphae. When hyphae of different mating types meet, some of the cells fuse. These cells, each containing two haploid nuclei, produce an extensive underground mycelium (bottom). Under appropriate conditions, portions of the mycelium aggregate, swell, and differentiate, poking up through the soil as mushrooms and completing the cycle.
“+” Mating Strain
“-” Mating Strain
Basidiospores germinate forming hyphae (haploid). + -
Haploid 1n
Hyphae fuse, but haploid nuclei remain separate in binucleate cells
Diploid 2n

22. Some Basidiomycetes (a) Giant Puffball (b) Shelf Fungi
The giant puffball Lycopedon giganteum may produce up to 5 trillion spores.
Shelf fungi, the size of dessert plates, are conspicuous on trees.
(a) Giant Puffball
(b) Shelf Fungi

23. A Mushroom Fairy Ring
Mushrooms emerge in a fairy ring from an underground fungal mycelium, growing outward from a central point where a single spore germinated, perhaps centuries ago.

24. Corn Smut
This basidiomycete pathogen destroys millions of dollars’ worth of corn each year. Even a pest like corn smut has its admirers, though. In Mexico this fungus is known as huitlacoche and is considered to be a great delicacy.

25. Deuteromycetes – imperfect fungi
Category is not based on homologous structures or evolutionary relationships but is based on the fact that no known sexual structure has been observed.
Reproduce asexually with spore producing conidiospores.
Examples – athlete’s foot, ringworm, the nefarious noose fungus, the lethal lollipop fungus, Penicillium, and Candida albicans which causes yeast infections and thrush

26. Penicillium
Penicillium growing on an orange. Reproductive structures, which coat the fruit’s surface, are visible, while hyphae beneath draw nourishment from inside. The antibiotic penicillin was first isolated from this fungus.

27. The Nemesis of Nematodes – the nefarious noose fungus
Arthrobotrys, the nematode (roundworm) strangler, traps its nematode prey in a nooselike modified hypha that swells when the inside of the loop is contacted.
Unfortunate nematode
Special hypha with noose

28. Conidia with conidiospores – any asexually spore producing stem is called a conidia. The following are both pictures of Penicillium

29. Rhizopus, Penicillium, and Aspergillus
The three pictures on the right are Rhizopus(zygomycete), the picture with the orange background is Penicillium(deuteromycete) and the bottom, right picture is Aspergillus(ascomycete).

30. Ecological Impact of Fungi
Symbiotic relationships
Lichens
Association between
Division Ascomycetes, and
Unicellular green algae or Cyanobacteria
Pioneers in succession
Mycorrhizae
Division Ascomycetes or Basidiomycetes, and
Roots of vascular plants
A mutualistic relationship

31. Lichens: Symbiotic Partnerships
Algal Layer
Most lichens have a layered structure bounded on the top and bottom by an outer layer formed from fungal hyphae. Attachments formed from fungal hyphae emerge from the lower layer and anchor the lichen to a surface, such as a rock or a tree. An algal layer in which the alga and fungus grow in close association lies beneath the upper layer of hyphae.
Fungal Hyphae
Attachment Structure

32. Lichens Covering a Rock
A colorful encrusting lichen, growing on dry rock, illustrates the tough independence of this symbiotic combination of fungus and alga.

33. Fructicose, Foliose, and Crustose lichens

34. Mycorrhizae Enhance Plant Growth
Hyphae of mycorrhizae entwining about the root of an aspen tree. Plants grow significantly better in a symbiotic association with these fungi, which help make nutrients and water available to the roots.
Mycorrhizae