1. POINTER Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY1

2.  Basic concept of pointers  Pointer declaration  Pointer operator (& and *)  Parameter passing by reference  Dynamic variables Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY2

3.  In previous chapter, you have learnt about how a function could return a single value under its name (passed by value).  But, for a function that must return multiple values we use parameter passing by pointers. (It is so called as passed by reference).  A pointer is a variable which directly points to a memory address.  It will allow the programmer to directly manipulate the data in memory.  So far, we have seen that a variable is used to store a value. A pointer variable, however, does not store a value but instead store the address of the memory space which contain the value. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY3

4.  Why would we want to use pointers? ◦ To call a function by reference so that the data passed to the function can be changed inside the function. ◦ To create a dynamic data structure which can grow larger or smaller as necessary. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY4

5.  A variable declaration such as, ◦ int number = 20; causes the compiler to allocate a memory location for the variable number and store in it the integer value 20. ◦ This absolute address of the memory location is readily available to our program during the run time. ◦ The computer uses this address to access its content. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY5 number 20 number directly references a variable whose value is 20

6.  A pointer declaration such as,  int *numberptr, number = 20; declares numberptr as a variable that points to an integer variable. Its content is not integer value 20 but, it is a memory address.  The * indicates that the variable being defined is a pointer.  In this sense, a variable named directly references a value, however a pointer indirectly references a value. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY6 number 20 numberptr indirectly references a variable whose value is 20 numberptr

7. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY7 Memory contentMemory address 0x0000 0x0001 0x0002 0x0003 …... 0xFFFF 0xFFFE 0xFFFD 0xFFFC 27 10 76 99 0x0002 787 878 999 A variable of type int is stored here. The address of this location is 0x0002. This location contains the value 0x0002. Therefore this location stores a pointer variable which points to the address 0x0002.

8.  General format: data_type *ptr_name;  Example: ◦ Pointer to an int: int *intptr; ◦ Pointer to a char: char *charptr;  The asterisk (*) character in front of the variable name tells that the variable is a pointer and not a variable to store value. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY8

9.  To prevent the pointer from pointing to a random memory address, it is advisable that the pointer is initialized to 0 or NULL before being used.  When a pointer is created, it is not pointing to any valid memory address. Therefore, we need to assign it to a variable’s address by using the & operator. This operator is called a reference operator.  After a pointer is assigned to a particular address, the value in the pointed address can be accessed using the * operator. This operator is called a dereference operator. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY9

10.  Look at this example: int num = 9; int *num_ptr; num_ptr = # printf(“num = %d”, *num_ptr);  Output: num = 9 Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY10

11. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY11 numPtr num 9 Graphical representation of a pointer pointing to an integer variable in memory numPtrnum 600000 9 Representation of num and numPtr in memory 600000500000

12. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY12 #include void main(void) { int var = 10; int *ptrvar = &var; printf(“The address of the variable var is: %x\n”, &var); printf(“The value of the pointer ptrvar is: %x\n”, ptrvar); printf(“Both values are the same\n”); printf(“The value of the variable var is: %d\n”, var); printf(“The value of *ptrvar is: %d\n”, *ptrvar); printf(“Both values are the same\n”); printf(“The address of the value pointed by ptrvar is: %d\n”, &*ptrvar); printf(“The value inside the address of ptrvar is: %d\n”, *&ptrvar); printf(“Both values are the same\n”); }

13. /*Sample Output The address of the variable var is: 1245052 The value of the pointer ptrvar is: 1245052 Both values are the same The value of the variable var is: 10 The value of *ptrvar is: 10 Both values are the same The address of the value pointed by ptrvar is: 1245052 The value inside the address of ptrvar is: 1245052 Both values are the same Press any key to continue */ Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY13

14.  A function call by reference can be done by passing a pointer to the function argument (the same way as passing a normal variable to the argument).  When the value referenced by the pointer is changed inside the function, the value in the actual variable will also change.  Therefore, we can pass the result of the function through the function argument without having to use the return statement. In fact, by passing pointers to the function argument, we can return more than one value. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY14

15.  When a pointer is passed to a function, we are actually passing the address of a variable to the function.  Since we have the address, we can directly manipulate the data in the address.  In the case where a non-pointer variable is passed, the function will create another space in memory to hold the value locally while the program is inside the function. Therefore, any change to the variable inside the function will not change the actual value of the variable. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY15

16.  To pass the value of variable by pointers between two functions, we must do the following: 1.Declare the variable that is meant to return a value to the calling function as a pointer variable in the formal parameter list of the function. void called_function(int *result); 2.When to call the function, use a variable together with address operator (&) called_function(&value_returned); Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY16

17.  Note : the effect of the above two actions is the same as the effect of the declarations  int value_returned;  int *result=&value_returned; 3.Declare the function with pointer parameter appropriately in a function prototype by using symbol * as a prefix for pointer parameters. void called_function(int *x); Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY17

18. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY18 void Func1(int a, int b) { a = 0; b = 0; printf(“Inside Func1, a = %d, b = %d\n”, a, b); } #include void Func1(int, int); void Func2(int *, int *); void main(void) { int a = 8, b = 9; printf(“Before Func1 is called, a = %d, b = %d\n”, a, b); Func1(a, b); printf(“After Func1 is called, a = %d, b = %d\n”, a, b); printf(“\nBefore Func2 is called, a = %d, b = %d\n”, a, b); Func2(&a, &b); printf(“After Func2 is called, a = %d, b = %\nd”, a, b); }

19. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY19 Output: Before Func1 is called, a = 8, b = 9 Inside Func1, a = 0, b = 0 After Func1 is called, a = 8, b = 9 Before Func2 is called, a = 8, b = 9 Inside Func2, *pa = 0, *pb = 0 After Func2 is called, a = 0, b = 0 void Func2(int *pa, int *pb) { *pa = 0; *pb = 0; printf(“Inside Func2, *pa = %d, *pb = %d\n”, *pa, *pb); }

20.  Variables that can be created and destroyed during program execution.  To use dynamic variables: ◦ Decide the type of data to be stored in such variable ◦ Declare a pointer variable of that data type ◦ Assign to the pointer the address created by the standard library function malloc. (malloc is declared in the standard header file stdlib.h) Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY20

21.  The function malloc is used to allocate a certain amount of memory during the execution of a program.  The malloc function will request a block of memory from the heap. If the request is granted, the operating system will reserve the requested amount of memory.  When the amount of memory is not needed anymore, we must return it to the operating system by calling the function free. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY21

22. Example: To create a dynamic variable of type int: 1. Declare a pointer variable of type int int *ptr; 2. Use the function malloc to create the dynamic variable ptr =malloc(sizeof(int));  The argument of malloc function is the number of bytes to be allocated for the dynamic variable it creates. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY22

23.  Normally we use the sizeof operator on a data type to specify the number of bytes as the argument of malloc.  malloc will allocate from the free memory location that can store a value in the indicated number of bytes.  In this example, malloc instructs the OS to allocate a memory location of sizeof(int) bytes.  If there is enough space in the free store, the OS gives it to the program and makes its address available to malloc i.e malloc returns the address of the dynamically allocated memory location to the pointer variable ptr.  If there is no available space, malloc returns NULL. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY23

24.  We may destroy the dynamic variable by using free function.  free(ptr) causes the OS to release the memory location pointed by the pointer variable ptr.  However, the memory location for the variable ptr is not deallocated and its content is not changed (it still contains an address but can no longer be used to access the memory legally)  It is advisable to assign the value NULL to ptr immediately after the application of the free function. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY24

25. int *ptr; ptr = malloc(sizeof(int)); *ptr = 5; free(ptr); ptr=NULL; Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY25 ? ptr ? ptr 5 ptr Invalid address ptr NULL

26. Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY26 /* * $Id: sizeof.c,v 1.1 2009/07/05 10:37:54 sms Exp $ * www.pccl.demon.co.uk * * Program to display data sizes. */ #include #define printsize(x) printf ("sizeof (" #x ") = %d\n", sizeof (x)) main () { printf ("\nNormal printf\n"); printsize (char); printsize (double); printsize (float); printsize (int); printsize (long); printsize (long long); printsize (long double); printsize (short); printsize (void *); printsize (int *); }

27. Normal printf sizeof (char) = 1 sizeof (double) = 8 sizeof (float) = 4 sizeof (int) = 4 sizeof (long) = 4 sizeof (long long) = 8 sizeof (long double) = 8 sizeof (short) = 2 sizeof (void *) = 4 sizeof (int *) = 4 Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY27

28. FunctionTask mallocAllocates memory requests size of bytes and returns a pointer to the Ist byte of allocated space callocAllocates space for an array of elements initializes them to zero and returns a pointer to the memory freeFrees previously allocated space reallocModifies the size of previously allocated space Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY28

29.  This chapter has exposed you about:  Pointer variables and parameter passing by reference/ pointers  The usage of symbol * and address operator (&)  Passing by pointers allows us to return multiple values from functions  How to use dynamic variables Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY29

30.  %c Displays char data  %i, %d Display int data  %f Displays float data  %2f Displays double data  %.2f Displays float with specified decimal (after.)  %s Displays string data  %o Displays octal data  %x Displays hexadecimal data Prepared by MMD, Edited by MSY30