1. Theories in Human Development

2. Theories… what are they good for?
Understanding
Generalization
A basis for decision making
Predicting future events
Define the next questions to ask

3. Theories Good theory criteria: Logically Emperically sound
Clear, testable and parsimonious
Cover a reasonably large area of science and should integrate previous research

4. Theories of Human Development
A developmental theory is a systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older.

5. Nature versus Nurture The questions: Which? How? How much? Behaviorist
Pscychoanalytic
How much?
Developmentalist/Developmental Contextualism

6. Theories of Human Development
Psychoanalytic Theory
A theory of human development
irrational, unconscious drives and motives underlie human behavior.
often originating in childhood
Psychoanalytic theory originated with Sigmund Freud (1856– 1939)

7. Psychoanalytic Theory- Freud
Libido
Personality has 3 parts that change over time: Id
Ego
Superego

8. Psychoanalytic-Freud
Defense Mechanisms
Repression
Reaction Formation
ature=relmfu
Projection
Regression
Fixation

9. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
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10. Psychoanalytic-Freud
Optimum development
Emphasis on the formative role of the early experience
What do you think? How important are the first 5 or 6 years in shaping our personality?

11. Psychoanalytic - Erikson
A student of Freud’s
Followed Freud’s stage theory
Development = Inner instincts X Cultural/social demands
Throughout the lifespan
Development occurs as individuals resolve 8 crises

12. Psychoanalytic- Erikson
8 crisis:
Trust V. Mistrust
Autonomy v. shame and doubt
Initiative v. guilt
Industry v. inferiority
Identity v. role confusion
Intimacy v. isolation
Generation v. stagnation
Integrity v. despair

14. Theories of Human Development
Behaviorism
Observable behavior
Conditioning

15. The Elements of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (US) and unconditioned response (UR)
Naturally occurring stimulus (US) evokes a naturally occurring response (UR)
Neutral stimulus (NS)
Pairing neutral and unconditioned stimuli
NS and US presented together
NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that produces a conditioned response (CR)
« Discussion Tip
Ask students to come up with their own examples of classical conditioning. Then have them write their examples on the board, labeling the different components. Have the class analyze the examples for accuracy.

16. Theories of Human Development
Operant conditioning - B.F. Skinner (1904–1990)
Desired outcomes = more likely to repeat
Undesired outcomes = less likely to repeat

17. Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Behavior leads to addition of something pleasant
Negative reinforcement
Behavior is rewarded by the removal of something unpleasant
Negative reinforcement is not punishment
“Negative” means removing something
Remember that reinforcement increases behavior

18. Positive and Negative Punishment
Punishment is an unpleasant consequence that leads to a decrease in behavior
Positive punishment
Addition of something unpleasant that decreases behavior
Negative punishment
Removal of something pleasant that decreases behavior
« Teaching Tip
Caution students not to make the very common mistake of confusing negative reinforcement with punishment. To reinforce this, have them generate original examples of the four consequences that can follow a behavioral response.
« Discussion Tip
Ask students to come up with examples of how they have been conditioned through instrumental conditioning in the past. Then have them explain how these examples fit with the Law of Effect.

19. Theories of Human Development
Social Learning Theory - Albert Bandura (b. 1925)
An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person’s behavior.
Modeling- people learn by observing other people and then copying them.
Self-efficacy- (how effective people think they are when it comes to changing themselves or altering their social context.

20. Social Learning Theory and Cognition
Four steps to modeling
Attention
Retention
Reproduction of behavior
Motivation
« Discussion Tip
Ask students to discuss why kids are more likely to be found playing Batman on the playground than Barney. Use this to lead into a discussion of what characteristics make a model attractive to children (e.g., being powerful).

21. Theories of Human Development
Cognitive Theory
Thoughts and expectations profoundly affect action.
Focuses on changes in how people think over time.
Jean Piaget (1896–1980)

22. Cognitive Theories Jean Piaget
Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage
Preoperational Stage
Concrete Operational Stage
Formal Operational Stage
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23. Theories of Human Development
Assimilation, in which new experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas
Accommodation, in which old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences

24. Theories of Human Development
Systems Theory
Change in one part of a person, family, or society affects every aspect of development
Ecological systems approach- Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005)
The person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life.

25. Theories of Human Development
Five Components of Bronfenbrenner’s System
microsystems (elements of the person’s immediate surroundings, such as family and peer group)
exosystems (local institutions such as school and church)
macrosystems (the larger social setting, including cultural values, economic policies, and political processes)

26. Theories of Human Development
chronosystem (literally, “time system”), which affects the other three systems
mesosystem, consisting of the connections among the other systems

27. Bioecological Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner
Explains development in terms of relationships between people and their environments
Contexts
Macrosystem
Exosystem
Microsystem
Mesosystem
Biological Context
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28. Comparing Theories
© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers