1. ACOUSTICS OF SPEECH AND SINGING MUSICAL ACOUSTICS Science of Sound, Chapters 15, 17 P. Denes & E. Pinson, The Speech Chain (1963, 1993) J. Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (1987) D. Miller, Resonance in Singing (2008)

2. THE VOCAL ORGANS

3. THE LARYNX (a)BACK VIEW (b) SIDE VIEW

4. VOCAL FOLDS CONTROL OF THE GLOTTAL OPENING BY THE ARYTENOIDS

5. SCHEMATIC OF THE BREATHING APPARATUS (b) CONTRACTION OF THE CHEST CAVITY BY THE INTERNAL INTERCOSTALS, ALONG WITH RAISING THE DIAPHRAM, CAUSES THE LUNGS TO CONTRACT (a) EXPANSION OF THE CHEST CAVITY BY THE EXTERNAL INTERCOSTALS ALONG WITH A FLATTENINGOF THE DIAPHRAM REDUCES THE PRESSURE AND CAUSES THE LUNGS TO EXPAND AND FILL WITH AIR

6. LUNG CAPACITY IN THE NORMAL YOUNG ADULT AND ITS SUBDIVISION INTO FUNCTIONING VOLUMES. THE VOLUME OF THE MALE LUNG IS INDICATED AT THE LEFT, THE FEMALE AT THE RIGHT

7. GLOTTAL WAVE FORMSPECTRUM

8. CLOSED PIPE MODEL OFTHE VOCAL TRACT

9. SIMPLE MODELS OF THE VOCAL TRACT

10. THE EFFECT OF FORMANTS ON SOUND

11. FORMANTS AND PITCH IN BOTH SPEECH AND SINGING, THERE IS A DIVISION OF LABOR BETWEEN THE VOCAL FOLDS AND VOCAL TRACT. THE VOCAL FOLDS CONTROL THE PITCH, WHILE THE VOCAL TRACT DETERMINES THE VOWEL SOUNDS THROUGH FORMANT (RESONANCE) FREQUENCIES AND ALSO ARTICULATES THE CONSONANTS TYPICAL FORMATS OF MALE AND FEMALE SPEAKERS REPRESENTED ON A MUSICAL STAFF.

12. FIRST AND SECOND FORMANTS OF VOWELS

13. CONSONANTS CONSONANTS INVOLVE VERY RAPID, SOMETIMES SUBTLE, CHANGES IN SOUND. CONSONANTS ARE MORE DIFFICULT TO ANALYZE AND TO DESCRIBE ACOUSTICALLY CONSONANTS MAY BE DESCRIBED ACCORDING TO THEIR PLACE OF ARTICULATION AND THEIR MANNER OF ARTICULATION. THE SIGNIFICANT PLACES OF ARTICULATION IN ENGLISH ARE THE LIPS (LABIAL), THE COMBINATION OF LOWER LIP AND UPPER TEETH (LABIO-DENTAL), THE TEETH (DENTAL), THE UPPER GUMS (AVEOLAR), THE HARD PALATE ( PALATAL), THE SOFT PALATE (VELAR), AND THE GLOTTIS (GLOTTAL) CONSONANTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE MANNER OF ARTICULATION AS PLOSIVE, FRICATIVE, NASAL, LIQUID, AND SEMIVOWEL. PLOSIVE CONSONANTS (p, b, t, etc.) ARE PRODUCED BY BLOCKING THE FLOW OF AIR (USUALLY IN THE MOUTH) AND RELEASING THE PRESSURE RATHER SUDDENLY FRICATIVES (f, s, sh, etc.) ARE MADE BY CONSTRICTING THE FLOW TO PRODUCE TURBULENCE NASALS (m, n, ng) ARE MADE BY LOWER THE SOFT PALATE TO CONNECT THE NASAL CAVITY TO THE PHARYNX AND BLOCKING THE MOUTH CAVITY SOMEWHERE SEMIVOWELS (w, y) ARE PRODUCED BY KEEPING THE VOCAL TRACT BRIEFLY IN A VOWEL POSITION AND THEN CHANGING IT RAIDLY TO THE VOWEL SOUND THAT FOLLOWS IN SOUND THE LIQUIDS (r, l) THE TIP OF THE TONGUE IS RAISED AND THE ORAL CAVITY IS SOMEWHAT RESTRICTED

14. CONSONANTS CONSONANTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE MANNER OF ARTICULATION AS PLOSIVE, FRICATIVE, NASAL, LIQUID, AND SEMIVOWEL. PLOSIVE CONSONANTS (p, b, t, etc.) ARE PRODUCED BY BLOCKING THE FLOW OF AIR (USUALLY IN THE MOUTH) AND RELEASING THE PRESSURE RATHER SUDDENLY FRICATIVES (f, s, sh, etc.) ARE MADE BY CONSTRICTING THE FLOW TO PRODUCE TURBULENCE NASALS (m, n, ng) ARE MADE BY LOWER THE SOFT PALATE TO CONNECT THE NASAL CAVITY TO THE PHARYNX AND BLOCKING THE MOUTH CAVITY SOMEWHERE SEMIVOWELS (w, y) ARE PRODUCED BY KEEPING THE VOCAL TRACT BRIEFLY IN A VOWEL POSITION AND THEN CHANGING IT RAIDLY TO THE VOWEL SOUND THAT FOLLOWS IN SOUND THE LIQUIDS (r, l) THE TIP OF THE TONGUE IS RAISED AND THE ORAL CAVITY IS SOMEWHAT RESTRICTED

15. CONSONANTS SEMIVOWELS (w, y) ARE PRODUCED BY KEEPING THE VOCAL TRACT BRIEFLY IN A VOWEL POSITION AND THEN CHANGING IT RApIDLY TO THE VOWEL SOUND THAT FOLLOWS IN SOUNDING THE LIQUIDS (r, l) THE TIP OF THE TONGUE IS RAISED AND THE ORAL CAVITY IS SOMEWHAT RESTRICTED CONSONANTS ARE FURTHER CLASSIFIED AS UNVOICED (p, t, k) OR VOICED (b, d, g).

16. FORMANT FREQUENCIES

17. VOWEL “æ” AS SPOKEN AND SUNG

18. FORMANT FREQUENCIES OF BASIC SUNG VOWELS

19. SINGER’S FORMANT

20. SPECTRUM OF /ά/ WITH HIGH AND LOW LARYNX

21. REGISTERS

22. FORMANT TUNING BY SOPRANOS F 1 AND F 2 ARE THE LOWEST FORMANTS OF VOWELS /i/, /ά/, and /u/ SOLID LINES ARE THE FIRST 7 HARMONICS OF THE SUNG NOTE

23. SUBGLOTTAL PRESSURE IN SINGING

24. GLOTTAL WAVEFORMS: Rates of closure

25. RELATIVE STRENGTHS OF HARMONICS IN FEMALE AND MALE VOICES IN MODAL AND FALSETTO (MALE)

26. POPULAR SINGING LESS VOWEL MODIFICATION (“STRAIGHT TEXT”) NATURALNESS AT THE EXPENSE OF BEAUTY SONG IS FREELY CHANGED TO SHOW OFF SINGER’S VOICE BELTING – EXTENDING CHEST REGISTER ABOVE NORMAL RANGE COUNTRY SINGERS SPECTRA OF SPOKEN & SUNG VOWELS ARE SIMILAR “SINGER’S FORMANT” USUALLY MISSING

27. HARMONIC SINGING VOCAL TRACT IS SHAPED TO GIVE STRONG EMPHASIS TO CERTAIN HARMONICS HARMONIC CHANTNORMAL SINGING

28. CHOIR SINGING CHOIR VS. SOLO SINGING MALE SINGERS HAVE LESS PROMINENT SINGER’S FORMANT IN CHOIR MODE “SELF” TO “OTHERS” RATIO (S0R) CHOIR SINGERS PREFER SOR OF ABOUT 6dB (AVE) MEASURED SORs ARE 4 dB (SINGLE ROW) TO 3 dB (DOUBLE ROW) IN OPERA CHORUS, SOR IS 10 –15 dB (Ternström, 2005) UNISONS /u/ IS MORE DIFFICULT TO MATCH TO A REFERENCE TONE THAN /ά/, PROBABLY BECAUSE OF LACK OF HARMONICS PITCH ACCURACY STANDARD DEVIATION IN A BASS SECTION FOUND TO BE 16 CENTS

29. AVERAGE SPECTRUM ENVELOPES OF BASS IN SOLO AND CHOIR MODES ( Rossing, et al., 1985 )