1. Stylistics Lecture (3)

2. Text and discourse: * The nature of the text A stretch of language complete in its self. Such as a business letter, a leaflet, a news report What about texts that consist of a single sentence, or even a single word, which are all the same experienced as texts * Because they fulfill the basic requirements of forming a meaningful whole in their own right.

3. Typical example of such small-scale texts are: 'Keep off the grass', 'Danger', 'Exist'. *These minimal texts are meaningful in themselves. They do not need a particular structural patterning with their language units. They are complete in terms of communicative meaning. The meaningfulness of the texts does not depend on their linguistic size only.

4. What else does it depend on? * It depends on its context, its immediate situation: you are familiar with the text in that context, you know what the message is intended to be, e.g., 'RAMP AHEAD‘ * If you have this road sign in the collection a souvenir-hunter, you still know the original meaning of the sign, but because of its dissociation from its ordinary context of traffic control, you are no longer able to act on its original intention.

5. . The nature of discourse: The process of activation of a text by relating it to a context of use is called discourse. Such as: is the door open? It could be a polite request or a question. Depending on the contxt. *This contextualization of a text is actually the reader's reconstruction of the writer's intended message is. *The difference between a text and a discourse: A text is the observable product of the writer's or speaker's discourse. * The observability of a text is a matter of degrees: Written form A sound recorded Unrecorded speech

6. In whatever form it comes the reader or hearer will search the text for cues or signals that may help to reconstruct the writer's or speaker's discourse. The reader or hearer,while she or he is engaged in process of reconstruction, may infer a different discourse from the text than the one the writer or speaker intended. The inference of the discourse meaning is a matter of negotiation between the writer or speaker and the reader or hearer is a contextualized social interaction.

7. Textual and contextual meaning In order to derive a discourse from a text, two different sites of meaning must be explored: The textual intrinsic linguistic and formal properties: ( sounds, typography, vocabulary, grammar, syntax and so on). The extrinsic contextual factors which affect its linguistic meaning.

8. These two interacting sites of meaning are the concern of two linguistic fields : Semantics: the study of formal meaning as they are encoded in the languages text. It is independent of writers or speakers and readers or hearers set in a particular context. Pragmatics: It is concerned with the meaning of language in discourse when it is used in a particular context to achieve its aims. Pragmatic meaning is not an alternative to semantic meaning, but complementary to it,because it is inferred from the interplay of semantic meaning with context.

9. * There are two kinds of context: An internal linguistic context: the language pattern inside the text An external non-linguistic context: the ideas and experience in the world outside the text. An external non-linguistic context is a very complex notion because it may include any number of text external features influencing the interpretation of a discourse. An external non-linguistic context

10. This notion can be manageable by specifying the following components: 1- The text type 2. its topic, purpose 3. the immediate temporary and physical setting of the text. 4. The text's wider social,cultural and historical setting. 5. the identities, knowledge, emotions, abilities, beliefs of the writers or speakers and readers or hearers. 6. the relationship holding between the writers or speakers and readers or hearers. 7. the association with other similar or related text types (intertextuality)

11. The context of literary discourse *The process of discourse inferencing is the same for non-literary and literary texts,for in either case we have to bring about an interaction between the semantic meanings of the linguistic items of the text and the pragmatic meanings of these items take on in a context of use. * The nature of the context of literary discourse is quite different from that of non-literary discourse is that it is dissociated from the immediacy of social contact.

12. The communicative situation in literary discourse A discourse is a context-bound act of communication verbalized in a text, and waiting to be inferred from it. Such as a communicative act is inherently an interpersonal activity between two parties: the addresser and the addressee. They may share a physical context, as in face to face conversation, or may not, as in written discourse. Context is not simply a matter of physical circumstances but of the ideas,values, beliefs, and so on inside people heads. In this sense all communication is a meeting of minds. In literature the communicative situation is not so straightforward. Since literary texts are disconnected from ordinary social practice.

13. * John Berjeman 's poem: The heavy mahogany door with its wrought-iron screen Shuts. And the sound is rich, sympathetic, discreet. The sun still shines in this eighteenth – century scene. With Edwardian faience adornments- Devonshire street. No hope the X-ray photographs under his arms Confirm the message. His wife stands timidly by. The opposite brick – built house looks lofty and calm Its chimneys steady against a mackerel sky. '

14. No hope. And the iron nob of this palisade So cold to the touch, is luckier now than he. 'Oh merciless, hurrying Londoners!.Why was I made. For the long and painful deathbed coming to me?' She puts her finger on his as, loving and silly. At long-past Kensington dances she used to do “It 's cheaper to take the tube to Piccadilly And then we can catch a nineteen or a twenty-two”

15. * The scene is described in 3rd person terms: his arms, his wife,he she. * The man's plight is related with detachment from the point of view of an uninvolved omniscient narrator, but his or her position is never made explicit by the use of a first – person pronoun: he or she remains an unidentifiable voice. * The direct speech is used only once by the wife and once by the husband but the perspective is different in each case: The wife uses the pronoun 'we' speaking on behave of both of them. The husband uses the pronoun 'I', but it represents not what he says but what he thinks: an interior monologue.

16. The scenes are linguistically realized by rather complex noun phrases, some of which are overloaded with adjectives and other types of modifying elements: The head nouns of the noun phrases are in capitals,while the determiners (the, this,its), adjectives ( for example, heavy,mahogany), and other descriptive structures ( for example, 'with its wrought-iron screen') are in italics.

17. These complex linguistic structures do not go beyond the status of textual data, but they are designed to have discourse significance and so to reflect perspective: There are three perspectives here: that of a man, his wife, and a detached observer. * What the wife says and what the husband thinks relate to two entirely different realities: the simple and trivial everyday life of the present they can share, and the dreadful agony of the future that they cannot.

18. The doomed patient seems to be overpowered by the solidity and agelessness of these lifeless objects, which ironically emphasize the fragility of his own life and that of human life in general. * In the linguistic structures, nouns denote lifeless objects which function either as the subject of action verbs ( 'the door shuts', 'the sun shines' and the X-ray photographs confirm the message) or as the subject of copula verbs linked with one or more adjectives denoting human features ('the sound is rich, sympathetic, discreet', 'the house looks lofty and calm', 'its chimneys steady' and the ' nob is luckier now than he') So lifeless objects are described as active and sentient.

19. The expressions used are normal and this suggests the continuity of ordinary and accepted things in spite of the man's personal agony. The man's anxieties and insecurity can be inferred from the way he perceives the things around him. He experiences his surrounding as animated, which implies that the lifeless objects are personified. They are given human attributes in that they are endowed with the power to act by themselves and they are given a consciousness and the human capacity to feel.

20. * There is an ironic comparative clause: ('the iron NOB of this palisade …. is luckier now than he.') ('Oh merciless, hurrying Londoners!.Why was I made.') * Similarly his wife is made the grammatical subject of helpless of helpless action: (His wife stands timidly by ', ' She puts her finger on his as, loving and silly' and … she used to do').

21. * There is a consistent use of the simple present tense in the description of the man 's perception: ( 'the door shuts', 'the sun shines' and the X-ray photographs confirm the message', 'the sound is rich, sympathetic, discreet', 'the house looks lofty and calm',).The use of this tense locates the events in the present. This gives an immediacy of the man's experience. His perceptions and his feelings are actual, here and now,not distanced in any past-tense narrative. * The reader is drawn into this reality and given a sense of sharing in the immediacy of this contextual present.

22. * The frequent use of the definite article ( for example, ‘the sound, the sun’, ‘the photographs’) It signifies a contextual convergence: it specifies a fact that the speaker and the person spoken to both know about. * It is the man's perspective on things which is dominant, but also to draw the reader into sharing it..

23. Concluding remarks : * There are communicative triangle elements: -1 st person party: an addresser -The material manifestation of a discourse - 2 nd person party: an addressee These are indispensable elements in a dynamic contextualized interaction. A discourse is not only concerned with linguistic features, but also with non-linguistic aspects such as the extra-textual context of communication in which the discourse is situated. * Literature is distinctive because its texts are closed off from normal external contextual connection and this means that we need to infer possible contextual implication, including perspective or point of view, from the textual features themselves.