1. The Russo-Ottoman War of 1877-78 The Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–1878 (93 Harbi in Turkish) was a new confrontaton between Saint Petersburg and Istanbul. In spite of some Ottoman advantages in this conflict such as Ottoman naval supremacy, well fortified defensive positions and availability of superior military technologies, the Sublime Porte a new disaster similar to 1774 and 1829 at the end of the war. The Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–1878 (93 Harbi in Turkish) was a new confrontaton between Saint Petersburg and Istanbul. In spite of some Ottoman advantages in this conflict such as Ottoman naval supremacy, well fortified defensive positions and availability of superior military technologies, the Sublime Porte a new disaster similar to 1774 and 1829 at the end of the war. The last Russo-Turkish War (the Crimean War) was a defeat for the Romanovs’ Empire. The last Russo-Turkish War (the Crimean War) was a defeat for the Romanovs’ Empire.

2. An anti-Ottoman uprising occurred in Bosnia- Herzegovina in the summer of 1875. The main reason for this revolt was the heavy tax burden imposed by the bankrupt Ottoman treasury. An anti-Ottoman uprising occurred in Bosnia- Herzegovina in the summer of 1875. The main reason for this revolt was the heavy tax burden imposed by the bankrupt Ottoman treasury. Despite some relaxation of taxes, the uprising continued until the end of 1875 and triggered the Bulgarian uprising of 1876. Despite some relaxation of taxes, the uprising continued until the end of 1875 and triggered the Bulgarian uprising of 1876.

3. Tension in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Russian support encouraged the principalities of Serbia and Montenegro's declaration of war against their nominal Ottoman master (suzerain) early in July 1876. Tension in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Russian support encouraged the principalities of Serbia and Montenegro's declaration of war against their nominal Ottoman master (suzerain) early in July 1876. The war raised also the imperial aims of two Great Powers, Russia and Austria-Hungary, who made a secret agreement in July 8, 1876 on partitioning the Balkan peninsula. The war raised also the imperial aims of two Great Powers, Russia and Austria-Hungary, who made a secret agreement in July 8, 1876 on partitioning the Balkan peninsula.

4. However, in August 1876, Serbian forces, supported by Bulgarian and Russian volunteers, were defeated by the Ottoman army, which was an unexpected scenario for Russia. However, in August 1876, Serbian forces, supported by Bulgarian and Russian volunteers, were defeated by the Ottoman army, which was an unexpected scenario for Russia. However the harsh measures taken by the Ottoman administration during the Bulgarian uprising and the actions of inadequate irregulars (başıbozuk in Turkish) used extensively by the Porte in Bulgaria due to the engagement of the Ottoman regular army in Western Balkans had a wide-spread response throughout Europe, even in the then pro-Ottoman Britain. However the harsh measures taken by the Ottoman administration during the Bulgarian uprising and the actions of inadequate irregulars (başıbozuk in Turkish) used extensively by the Porte in Bulgaria due to the engagement of the Ottoman regular army in Western Balkans had a wide-spread response throughout Europe, even in the then pro-Ottoman Britain.

5. As a result the Istanbul Conference was held in December 1876. At this conference, the Great Powers discussed the boundaries of future autonomous Bulgarian provinces within the Ottoman Empire. As a result the Istanbul Conference was held in December 1876. At this conference, the Great Powers discussed the boundaries of future autonomous Bulgarian provinces within the Ottoman Empire.Attention The Ottoman state was not represented at the conference.

6. The Conference was interrupted by the Ottoman foreign minister, who informed the foreign delegations that Ottoman empire had approved a new constitution (Kanun-i Esasi), which guaranteed rights and freedoms of all ethnic minorities and thus Bulgarians would enjoy equal rights with all Ottoman citizens. The Conference was interrupted by the Ottoman foreign minister, who informed the foreign delegations that Ottoman empire had approved a new constitution (Kanun-i Esasi), which guaranteed rights and freedoms of all ethnic minorities and thus Bulgarians would enjoy equal rights with all Ottoman citizens. Despite this radical move of constitutionalism and democratization, Russia remained interventionist towards the Ottoman Empire, arguing that the constitution was only a partial solution. Despite this radical move of constitutionalism and democratization, Russia remained interventionist towards the Ottoman Empire, arguing that the constitution was only a partial solution.

7. Through diplomatic negotiations Russians ensured the inaction of Austria-Hungary in a prospective Russo-Ottoman war. Through diplomatic negotiations Russians ensured the inaction of Austria-Hungary in a prospective Russo-Ottoman war. Despite a strong public opinion for the idea of an independent Bulgaria in Britain, fostered by the writings and speeches of former Prime Minister William Gladstone, the Prime Minister at the time, Benjamin Disraeli believed in a containment policy towards the Romanov Empire and wanted to continue to support the Ottoman Empire against any Russian aggression. Despite a strong public opinion for the idea of an independent Bulgaria in Britain, fostered by the writings and speeches of former Prime Minister William Gladstone, the Prime Minister at the time, Benjamin Disraeli believed in a containment policy towards the Romanov Empire and wanted to continue to support the Ottoman Empire against any Russian aggression. Disraeli positioned Britain as the defender of the Ottoman Empire, as London had done in the Crimean War twenty years ago. Disraeli positioned Britain as the defender of the Ottoman Empire, as London had done in the Crimean War twenty years ago.

8. According to the conclusion of the Conference, Bulgaria would be divided into an eastern and a western province, Bosnia- Herzegovina united into one province, and each of these three provinces would have a considerable degree of autonomy, including a provincial assembly and a local police force. According to the conclusion of the Conference, Bulgaria would be divided into an eastern and a western province, Bosnia- Herzegovina united into one province, and each of these three provinces would have a considerable degree of autonomy, including a provincial assembly and a local police force. Also, Serbia was to lose no territory and Montenegro was to be allowed to keep the areas she had overrun in the war of 1876 in Herzegovina and northern Albania. Also, Serbia was to lose no territory and Montenegro was to be allowed to keep the areas she had overrun in the war of 1876 in Herzegovina and northern Albania.

9. The Ottoman Empire refused this solution and Russia declared war on the Porte on 24 April 1877. The Ottoman Empire refused this solution and Russia declared war on the Porte on 24 April 1877. The Sublime Porte with a modernized army and strong navy was optimistic for the outcome of the conflict and expected British military assistance and/or intervention. The Sublime Porte with a modernized army and strong navy was optimistic for the outcome of the conflict and expected British military assistance and/or intervention. The Russians could raise a larger army but the Ottomans had the advantage of being fortified, and of having a complete command of the Black Sea. The Ottoman army had also better military equipment such as US made Winchester rifles. The Russians could raise a larger army but the Ottomans had the advantage of being fortified, and of having a complete command of the Black Sea. The Ottoman army had also better military equipment such as US made Winchester rifles.

10. In spite of some world-wide appreciated Ottoman defensive successes at Plevna in the Balkans and at Erzurum in Eastern Anatolia, Ottoman strategic failures paved the way for the arrival of the Russian armies until the gates of Istanbul. In spite of some world-wide appreciated Ottoman defensive successes at Plevna in the Balkans and at Erzurum in Eastern Anatolia, Ottoman strategic failures paved the way for the arrival of the Russian armies until the gates of Istanbul. Under pressure from the British and having suffered heavy losses (by some estimates about 200,000 men) Russia accepted the truce offered by the Porte on January 31, 1878, but continued to move towards Istanbul. Under pressure from the British and having suffered heavy losses (by some estimates about 200,000 men) Russia accepted the truce offered by the Porte on January 31, 1878, but continued to move towards Istanbul.

11. The British sent a fleet of battleships to intimidate Russia from entering into the city, and Russian forces had to stop by San Stefano (Yeşilköy). The British sent a fleet of battleships to intimidate Russia from entering into the city, and Russian forces had to stop by San Stefano (Yeşilköy). Eventually Russia entered into a settlement under the Treaty of San Stefano (Ayastefanos) on March 3 1878, by which the Ottoman Empire would recognize the independence of Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and autonomy of Bulgaria. Eventually Russia entered into a settlement under the Treaty of San Stefano (Ayastefanos) on March 3 1878, by which the Ottoman Empire would recognize the independence of Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and autonomy of Bulgaria. Alarmed by the extension of Russian power into the Balkans, the Great Powers later forced modifications of the treaty in the Congress of Berlin. Alarmed by the extension of Russian power into the Balkans, the Great Powers later forced modifications of the treaty in the Congress of Berlin.

12. The main change was that Bulgaria would be split into the northern and eastern parts to become principalities (Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia), though with different governors; and the Macedonian region, originally part of Bulgaria under San Stefano, would return to direct Ottoman administration. The main change was that Bulgaria would be split into the northern and eastern parts to become principalities (Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia), though with different governors; and the Macedonian region, originally part of Bulgaria under San Stefano, would return to direct Ottoman administration. The war resulted in a sharp decrease of the Turco-Muslim population in Bulgaria between 1876 and 1882: it is estimated that 262,000 died of various reasons and 515,000 fled (a new wave of muhajereen). The war resulted in a sharp decrease of the Turco-Muslim population in Bulgaria between 1876 and 1882: it is estimated that 262,000 died of various reasons and 515,000 fled (a new wave of muhajereen).

13. Congress of Berlin The Congress of Berlin (June 13 - July 13, 1878) was an international meeting of the European Great Powers' and the Ottoman Empire's diplomats in Berlin in 1878. The Congress of Berlin (June 13 - July 13, 1878) was an international meeting of the European Great Powers' and the Ottoman Empire's diplomats in Berlin in 1878. In the aftermath of the Russo-Ottoman War, the meeting's goal was to reshape the political map of the Balkans. In the aftermath of the Russo-Ottoman War, the meeting's goal was to reshape the political map of the Balkans. Otto von Bismarck, calling himself the “honest broker” of the negotiations, who led the Congress, undertook to balance the distinct interests of Great Britain, Russia and Austria- Hungary. Otto von Bismarck, calling himself the “honest broker” of the negotiations, who led the Congress, undertook to balance the distinct interests of Great Britain, Russia and Austria- Hungary.

14. As a consequence, however, differences between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. As a consequence, however, differences between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. The congress aimed the revision of the Treaty of San Stefano and the Ottoman possession of Istanbul. It effectively dilluted Russia's military successes over the collapsing Ottoman Empire. The congress aimed the revision of the Treaty of San Stefano and the Ottoman possession of Istanbul. It effectively dilluted Russia's military successes over the collapsing Ottoman Empire. The Congress of Berlin gave back to the Ottoman Empire certain Bulgarian territories that the previous treaty had given to the Principality of Bulgaria, most notably Macedonia. The Congress of Berlin gave back to the Ottoman Empire certain Bulgarian territories that the previous treaty had given to the Principality of Bulgaria, most notably Macedonia.

15. The Congress was attended by the British Empire, Austria-Hungary, France, the German Empire, Italy, Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Delegates from Greece, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro also attended the sessions in which their states were concerned. The Congress was attended by the British Empire, Austria-Hungary, France, the German Empire, Italy, Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Delegates from Greece, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro also attended the sessions in which their states were concerned. The congress was marked by the foes of the Russian Empire, particularly by the Dual Monarchy and Britain. The congress was marked by the foes of the Russian Empire, particularly by the Dual Monarchy and Britain. The Congress of Berlin proposed and ratified the Treaty of Berlin. The Congress of Berlin proposed and ratified the Treaty of Berlin. The congress revised or eliminated 18 of the 29 articles in the Treaty of San Stefano. The congress revised or eliminated 18 of the 29 articles in the Treaty of San Stefano.

16. The Berlin Congress Settlement