1. Chapter 8: Deformation & Strengthening Mechanisms
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Why are the number of dislocations present
greatest in metals ?
• How are strength and dislocation motion related?
• Why does heating alter strength and other properties?

2. Dislocations & Materials Classes
• Metals (Cu, Al):
Dislocation motion easiest
- non-directional bonding
- close-packed directions
for slip
electron cloud
ion cores +
• Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion difficult
- directional (angular) bonding
• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):
Motion difficult
- need to avoid nearest neighbors of like sign (- and +) + -

3. Dislocation Motion Dislocation motion & plastic deformation
Metals - plastic deformation occurs by slip – an edge dislocation (extra half-plane of atoms) slides over adjacent plane half-planes of atoms.
So we saw that above the yield stress plastic deformation occurs. But how? In a perfect single crystal for this to occur every bond connecting tow planes would have to break at once! Large energy requirement
Now rather than entire plane of bonds needing to be broken at once, only the bonds along dislocation line are broken at once.
If dislocations can't move, plastic deformation doesn't occur!
Adapted from Fig. 8.1, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

4. Dislocation Motion
A dislocation moves along a slip plane in a slip direction perpendicular to the dislocation line
The slip direction is the same as the Burgers vector direction
Edge dislocation
Adapted from Fig. 8.2, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Screw dislocation

5. Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
Slip plane - plane on which easiest slippage occurs
Highest planar densities (and large interplanar spacings)
Slip directions - directions of movement
Highest linear densities
Adapted from Fig. 8.6, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110> directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
For BCC & HCP there are other slip systems.

6. Stress and Dislocation Motion
• Resolved shear stress, tR
results from applied tensile stresses
Applied tensile
stress:
= F/A s
direction
slip F A
slip plane
normal, ns
Resolved shear
stress: tR = F s /A
direction
slip AS FS
direction
slip
Relation between s
and tR = FS
/AS F
cos l A / f nS AS

7. Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Condition for dislocation motion:
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa
typically
• Ease of dislocation motion depends
on crystallographic orientation tR
= 0 l
=90° s tR = s /2 l
=45° f tR
= 0 f
=90° s
 maximum at  =  = 45º

8. Single Crystal Slip Adapted from Fig. 8.9, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

9. Ex: Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?
 = 60°
crss = 20.7 MPa
 = 35°
Adapted from Fig. 8.7, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
 = 6500 psi
So the applied stress of 6500 psi will not cause the crystal to yield.

10. Ex: Deformation of single crystal
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the yield stress, sy)?
So for deformation to occur the applied stress must be greater than or equal to the yield stress

11. Slip Motion in Polycrystals
300 mm
• Stronger - grain boundaries pin deformations
• Slip planes & directions
(l, f) change from one
crystal to another.
• tR will vary from one
• The crystal with the
largest tR yields first.
• Other (less favorably
oriented) crystals
yield later.
Adapted from Fig. 8.10, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
(Fig is courtesy of C. Brady, National Bureau of Standards [now the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD].)

12. Anisotropy in sy • Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling
- after rolling
- anisotropic
since rolling affects grain
orientation and shape.
rolling direction
Adapted from Fig. 8.11, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
(Fig is from W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure, p. 140, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1964.)
235 mm
- isotropic
since grains are
approx. spherical
& randomly
oriented.

13. Anisotropy in Deformation
• The noncircular end view shows
anisotropic deformation of rolled material.
end
view
3. Deformed
cylinder
plate
thickness
direction
Photos courtesy
of G.T. Gray III,
Los Alamos
National Labs. Used with
permission.
1. Cylinder of
tantalum
machined
from a
rolled plate:
rolling direction
2. Fire cylinder
at a target.
side view

14. 4 Strategies for Strengthening Metals: 1: Reduce Grain Size
• Grain boundaries are
barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation.
• Smaller grain size:
more barriers to slip.
• Hall-Petch Equation:
Adapted from Fig. 8.14, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig is from A Textbook of Materials Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

15. 4 Strategies for Strengthening Metals: 2: Solid Solutions
• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
• Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional
impurity
Impurity generates local stress at A and B that opposes dislocation motion to the right. A B
• Larger substitutional
impurity
Impurity generates local stress at C and D that opposes dislocation motion to the right. C D

16. Stress Concentration at Dislocations
Don’t move past one another – hardens material
Adapted from Fig. 8.4, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

17. Strengthening by Alloying
small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
reduce mobility of dislocation  increase strength
Adapted from Fig. 8.17, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

18. Strengthening by Alloying
large impurities concentrate at dislocations on low density side
Adapted from Fig. 8.18, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

19. Ex: Solid Solution Strengthening in Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
Tensile strength (MPa)
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C)
200
300
400 10 20 30 40 50
Yield strength (MPa)
wt.%Ni, (Concentration C) 60
120
180 10 20 30 40 50
Adapted from Fig (a) and (b), Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
• Empirical relation:
• Alloying increases sy and TS.

20. 4 Strategies for Strengthening Metals: 3: Precipitation Strengthening
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
Side View
precipitate
Top View
Slipped part of slip plane
Unslipped part of slip plane S
spacing
Large shear stress needed
to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.
Dislocation
“advances” but
precipitates act as
“pinning” sites with
spacing S .
• Result:

21. Application: Precipitation Strengthening
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph, Chapter 11, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (courtesy of G.H. Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.)
• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed
by alloying.
1.5mm
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph, Chapter 11, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (courtesy of G.H. Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.)

22. 4 Strategies for Strengthening Metals: 4: Cold Work (%CW)
• Room temperature deformation.
• Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
Adapted from Fig. 14.2, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
-Forging A o d
force
die
blank
-Rolling
roll A o d
-Drawing
tensile
force A o d
die
-Extrusion
ram
billet
container
force
die holder
die A o d
extrusion

23. Dislocations During Cold Work
• Ti alloy after cold working:
0.9 mm
• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.
Adapted from Fig. 5.11, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
(Fig is courtesy of M.R. Plichta, Michigan Technological University.)

24. Result of Cold Work total dislocation length Dislocation density =
unit volume
Dislocation density =
Carefully grown single crystal
 ca. 103 mm-2
Deforming sample increases density
 mm-2
Heat treatment reduces density
 mm-2
Again it propagates through til reaches the edge
large hardening
small hardening s e y0 y1
• Yield stress increases
as rd increases:

25. Effects of Stress at Dislocations
Adapted from Fig. 8.5, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

26. Impact of Cold Work As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.
Adapted from Fig. 8.20, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

27. Cold Work Analysis Cu Cu Cu • What is the tensile strength &
=12.2mm
Copper
• What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working? D o
=15.2mm
% Cold Work
100
300
500
700 Cu 20 40 60
yield strength (MPa)
% Cold Work
tensile strength (MPa)
200 Cu
400
600
800 20 40 60
ductility (%EL)
% Cold Work 20 40 60 Cu s y
= 300MPa
300MPa
340MPa
TS = 340MPa 7%
%EL
= 7%
Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.)

28. s- e Behavior vs. Temperature
• Results for
polycrystalline iron:
-200C
-100C
25C
800
600
400
200
Strain
Stress (MPa)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
• sy and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.
• %EL increases with increasing test temperature.
• Why? Vacancies
help dislocations
move past obstacles. 3
. disl. glides past obstacle
2. vacancies
replace
atoms on the
disl. half
plane
1. disl. trapped
by obstacle
obstacle

29. Effect of Heating After %CW
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are reversed!
tensile strength (MPa)
ductility (%EL)
tensile strength
ductility
Recovery
Recrystallization
Grain Growth
600
300
400
500 60 50 40 30 20
annealing temperature (ºC)
200
100
700
• 3 Annealing
stages to
discuss...
Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)

30. Recovery tR Annihilation reduces dislocation density. • Scenario 1
Results from diffusion
extra half-plane
of atoms
Dislocations
annihilate
and form
a perfect
atomic
plane.
atoms
diffuse
to regions
of tension
• Scenario 2 tR
1. dislocation blocked;
can’t move to the right
Obstacle dislocation 3
. “Climbed” disl. can now
move on new slip plane 2
. grey atoms leave by
vacancy diffusion
allowing disl. to “climb”
4. opposite dislocations
meet and annihilate

31. Recrystallization • New grains are formed that:
-- have a small dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
33% cold
worked
brass
New crystals
nucleate after
3 sec. at 580C.
0.6 mm
Adapted from Fig (a),(b), Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig (a),(b) are courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.)

32. Further Recrystallization
• All cold-worked grains are consumed.
After 4
seconds
After 8
0.6 mm
Adapted from Fig (c),(d), Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig (c),(d) are courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.)

33. Grain Growth • At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
• Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
After 8 s,
580ºC
After 15 min,
0.6 mm
Adapted from Fig (d),(e), Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig (d),(e) are courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.)
• Empirical Relation:
elapsed time
coefficient dependent
on material and T.
grain diam.
at time t.
exponent typ. ~ 2
Ostwald Ripening

34. TR = recrystallization temperatureTR
TR = recrystallization temperature
Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

35. Recrystallization Temperature, TR
TR = recrystallization temperature = point of highest rate of property change
Tm => TR  Tm (K)
Due to diffusion  annealing time TR = f(time) shorter annealing time => higher TR
Higher %CW => lower TR – strain hardening
Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation movements
Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR

36. Coldwork Calculations
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in (10.2 mm) in diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The circular cross section will be maintained during deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess of 55,000 psi (380 MPa) and a ductility of at least 15 %EL are desired. Further more, the final diameter must be 0.30 in (7.6 mm). Explain how this may be accomplished.

37. Coldwork Calculations Solution
If we directly draw to the final diameter what happens?
Brass
Cold
Work D f
= 0.30 in D o
= 0.40 in

38. Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.
420
540 6
For %CW = 43.8%
Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
y = 420 MPa
TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
%EL = 6 < 15
This doesn’t satisfy criteria…… what can we do?

39. Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.
380 12 15 27
Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
For TS > 380 MPa
> 12 %CW
For %EL > 15
< 27 %CW
 our working range is limited to %CW = 12-27

40. Coldwork Calc Soln: Recrystallization
Cold draw-anneal-cold draw again
For objective we need a cold work of %CW  12-27
We’ll use %CW = 20
Diameter after first cold draw (before 2nd cold draw)?
must be calculated as follows: 
So after the cold draw & anneal D02=0.335m
Intermediate diameter =

41. Coldwork Calculations Solution
Summary:
Cold work D01= 0.40 in  Df1 = m
Anneal above D02 = Df1
Cold work D02= in  Df 2 =0.30 m
Therefore, meets all requirements
Fig 7.19 

42. Rate of Recrystallization
Hot work  above TR
Cold work  below TR
Smaller grains
stronger at low temperature
weaker at high temperature
log t
start
finish
50%

43. Mechanical Properties of Polymers – Stress-Strain Behavior
brittle polymer
plastic
elastomer
elastic moduli – less than for metals
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
• Fracture strengths of polymers ~ 10% of those for metals
• Deformation strains for polymers > 1000% – for most metals, deformation strains < 10% 43 43

44. Mechanisms of Deformation—Brittle Crosslinked and Network Polymers
(MPa)
Near Failure
Near Failure
Initial x
Initial
network polymer
brittle failure x
plastic failure
aligned, crosslinked
polymer e
Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. 44 44

45. Mechanisms of Deformation — Semicrystalline (Plastic) Polymers
(MPa)
fibrillar structure
near
failure x
brittle failure
Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. Inset figures along plastic response curve adapted from Figs & 8.28, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Figs & 8.28 are from J.M. Schultz, Polymer Materials Science, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1974, pp )
onset of
necking
plastic failure x
crystalline
regions align
crystalline
block segments
separate
amorphous
regions
elongate
unload/reload
undeformed
structure e 45 45

46. Predeformation by Drawing
• Drawing…(ex: monofilament fishline)
-- stretches the polymer prior to use
-- aligns chains in the stretching direction
• Results of drawing:
-- increases the elastic modulus (E) in the
stretching direction
-- increases the tensile strength (TS) in the
-- decreases ductility (%EL)
• Annealing after drawing...
-- decreases chain alignment
-- reverses effects of drawing (reduces E and TS, enhances %EL)
• Contrast to effects of cold working in metals!
Adapted from Fig. 8.28, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig is from J.M. Schultz, Polymer Materials Science, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1974, pp ) 46 46

47. Mechanisms of Deformation—Elastomers
(MPa)
final: chains
are straighter,
still
cross-linked x
brittle failure
Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. Inset figures along elastomer curve (green) adapted from Fig. 8.30, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig is from Z.D. Jastrzebski, The Nature and Properties of Engineering Materials, 3rd ed., John Wiley and Sons, 1987.)
plastic failure x x
elastomer
initial: amorphous chains are
kinked, cross-linked.
deformation
is reversible (elastic)! e
• Compare elastic behavior of elastomers with the:
-- brittle behavior (of aligned, crosslinked & network polymers), and
-- plastic behavior (of semicrystalline polymers)
(as shown on previous slides) 47 47

48. Summary • Dislocations are observed primarily in metals and alloys.
• Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
• Particular ways to increase strength are to:
-- decrease grain size
-- solid solution strengthening
-- precipitate strengthening
-- cold work
• Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density
and increase grain size. This decreases the strength.