1. Available Written Sources and their limitations and strengths Including: ancient writers, graffiti, and official inscriptions. ancient writers graffitiofficial inscriptionsancient writers graffitiofficial inscriptions

2. Ancient Writers There are a small number of ancient texts containing information and evidence on Pompeii and Herculaneum, most of which focus solely on certain aspects of the towns, such as Natural History by Pliny the Elder. The most famous literary sources are the letters written to Tacitus by Pliny the Younger, which contain his own eyewitness account of the eruption of Vesuvius. The amount of information gathered from the varied texts along with graffiti and inscriptions found is enough to learn a useful amount on both Pompeii and Herculaneum. There are a small number of ancient texts containing information and evidence on Pompeii and Herculaneum, most of which focus solely on certain aspects of the towns, such as Natural History by Pliny the Elder. The most famous literary sources are the letters written to Tacitus by Pliny the Younger, which contain his own eyewitness account of the eruption of Vesuvius. The amount of information gathered from the varied texts along with graffiti and inscriptions found is enough to learn a useful amount on both Pompeii and Herculaneum.

3. Strabo Strabo was a famous and successful Greek geographer and historian his text of Geography often relies on other sources, however is still very useful in regards to information on geography. The information included in Strabo’s text covers the Mediterranean and different portions of Britain, therefore providing information on the cities of Vesuvius. Strabo was a famous and successful Greek geographer and historian his text of Geography often relies on other sources, however is still very useful in regards to information on geography. The information included in Strabo’s text covers the Mediterranean and different portions of Britain, therefore providing information on the cities of Vesuvius. ‘Next is the Herakleian Fortress (Herculaneum) on the headland that juts out into the sea and wonderfully catches the breezes of the south-east wind. This makes the settlement a healthy place to live. Both this place, and the one after it, Pompeia (Pompeii) past which flows the Sarnus river.’ ‘Next is the Herakleian Fortress (Herculaneum) on the headland that juts out into the sea and wonderfully catches the breezes of the south-east wind. This makes the settlement a healthy place to live. Both this place, and the one after it, Pompeia (Pompeii) past which flows the Sarnus river.’ The strength of this source is that it provides reliable information on the land The strength of this source is that it provides reliable information on the land The limitation of Geography is that Strabo gathered much of his information from other written sources. The limitation of Geography is that Strabo gathered much of his information from other written sources.

4. Seneca A former tutor to Nero and one of his eventual advisors, the philosopher Lucius Annaeus Seneca wrote many literary works including a significant one on natural phenomena. In this work he provides an account of the AD62 earthquake. A former tutor to Nero and one of his eventual advisors, the philosopher Lucius Annaeus Seneca wrote many literary works including a significant one on natural phenomena. In this work he provides an account of the AD62 earthquake. ‘Lucilius, best of men, I have heard that Pompeii, the famous city in Campania, has been levelled by an earthquake which has also shaken the nearby regions….It happened in the Nones of February in the consulship of Regulus and Verginius. It devastated Campania which had never been safe from this calamity, but still had never been damaged and so many times had only experienced fear.” ‘Lucilius, best of men, I have heard that Pompeii, the famous city in Campania, has been levelled by an earthquake which has also shaken the nearby regions….It happened in the Nones of February in the consulship of Regulus and Verginius. It devastated Campania which had never been safe from this calamity, but still had never been damaged and so many times had only experienced fear.” The strength of this source is that Seneca was a successful and powerful man with access to information. The strength of this source is that Seneca was a successful and powerful man with access to information. The limitation is that he is not an eyewitness. The limitation is that he is not an eyewitness.

5. Pliny the Younger The most famous and significant literary source in regards to the eruption of Vesuvius were the letters of Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitius. According to Haraldur Sigurdsson, ‘in the field of science Pliny’s letter..will remain classics as the first eyewitness report of an explosive volcanic eruption so powerful that is it repeated on our planet only about once in a thousand years.’ The most famous and significant literary source in regards to the eruption of Vesuvius were the letters of Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitius. According to Haraldur Sigurdsson, ‘in the field of science Pliny’s letter..will remain classics as the first eyewitness report of an explosive volcanic eruption so powerful that is it repeated on our planet only about once in a thousand years.’ ‘Now, as the ships drew near, ashes were falling hotter and thicker, Now pumice and blackened stones, charred and cracked by fire…Now it was daylight elsewhere but here it was a night blacker and denser than any other night.’ Pliny. ‘Now, as the ships drew near, ashes were falling hotter and thicker, Now pumice and blackened stones, charred and cracked by fire…Now it was daylight elsewhere but here it was a night blacker and denser than any other night.’ Pliny. The strength of Pliny’s letters is that he was an eyewitness, and as a educated man had the skills to record what he saw. The strength of Pliny’s letters is that he was an eyewitness, and as a educated man had the skills to record what he saw. The limitations are that he wrote the letters 25 years after the event, and it is clear that glorifying his uncle in them was important to him. The limitations are that he wrote the letters 25 years after the event, and it is clear that glorifying his uncle in them was important to him.

6. Pliny the Elder Gauis Plinius Secundus, or Pliny the Elder, had a successful military career as well as political, therefore he was appointed by emperor Titus as commander of the fleet at Misenum. He was a well educated man and had an interest in natural events. Pliny was an ancient writer who composed his work called Natural History, which covered many topics and was the only author to include a table of contents within his work. The value in his work ‘lies in the fact that he records what was believed at the time.’ This major work was so vast that it was comprised in 37 books, and covered topics such as the fresh produce of the region, the gardens of Pompeii, medicinal plants and more. Gauis Plinius Secundus, or Pliny the Elder, had a successful military career as well as political, therefore he was appointed by emperor Titus as commander of the fleet at Misenum. He was a well educated man and had an interest in natural events. Pliny was an ancient writer who composed his work called Natural History, which covered many topics and was the only author to include a table of contents within his work. The value in his work ‘lies in the fact that he records what was believed at the time.’ This major work was so vast that it was comprised in 37 books, and covered topics such as the fresh produce of the region, the gardens of Pompeii, medicinal plants and more. The strength of this source is that Pliny was a powerful and experienced man who is noted for his interest in nature, and sought out much of his information first hand. The strength of this source is that Pliny was a powerful and experienced man who is noted for his interest in nature, and sought out much of his information first hand. The limitation of Pliny is that he was supposedly an ‘uncritical compiler’. The limitation of Pliny is that he was supposedly an ‘uncritical compiler’.

7. Graffiti Like modern times, graffiti has been seen in Pompeii and Herculaneum, and evidence of this still exists on the remains of the buildings of the towns, carved into the surface ‘with stylus, iron nail, wooden splinter or tooth pick.’ The opinions of a wide range of people taking residence in Pompeii and Herculaneum can be seen through their graffiti, men women and children recorded their feelings on a number of aspects of their life. Gambling debts, love messages, gossip and poetry have all been found in the form of graffiti. Like modern times, graffiti has been seen in Pompeii and Herculaneum, and evidence of this still exists on the remains of the buildings of the towns, carved into the surface ‘with stylus, iron nail, wooden splinter or tooth pick.’ The opinions of a wide range of people taking residence in Pompeii and Herculaneum can be seen through their graffiti, men women and children recorded their feelings on a number of aspects of their life. Gambling debts, love messages, gossip and poetry have all been found in the form of graffiti.

8. Graffiti: Poetry Among the many different types of graffiti that was carved in numerous places around Pompeii and Herculaneum there was poetry. The poets of the era were often quoted, and some people, like Tiburtinis, even wrote their own poetry around town. Tiburnitis wrote on the wall of the Odeon, ‘What happened? After drawing me helplessly into the fire, O my eyes, now your cheeks run with tears. But the tears cannot put out the flames. They spread across your face and darkness comes to the spirit.’ Among the many different types of graffiti that was carved in numerous places around Pompeii and Herculaneum there was poetry. The poets of the era were often quoted, and some people, like Tiburtinis, even wrote their own poetry around town. Tiburnitis wrote on the wall of the Odeon, ‘What happened? After drawing me helplessly into the fire, O my eyes, now your cheeks run with tears. But the tears cannot put out the flames. They spread across your face and darkness comes to the spirit.’ The strength of this source shows the popularity of poetry. The strength of this source shows the popularity of poetry.

9. Graffiti: Outbursts The Basilica was the court of law in Pompeii and found on the walls of the Basilica was some graffiti of a more sinister nature. ‘Chius, I hope your piles are chafed once more, that they may burn worse than they’ve burnt before.’ ‘Samius to Cornelius: Go hang yourself.’ This provides an insight into how insults and threats were possibly delivered in ages past. The Basilica was the court of law in Pompeii and found on the walls of the Basilica was some graffiti of a more sinister nature. ‘Chius, I hope your piles are chafed once more, that they may burn worse than they’ve burnt before.’ ‘Samius to Cornelius: Go hang yourself.’ This provides an insight into how insults and threats were possibly delivered in ages past. This source shows one of the ways citizens of Pompeii expressed themselves. This source shows one of the ways citizens of Pompeii expressed themselves.

10. Graffiti: Love Messages Throughout Pompeii there is much evidence of love written on the city walls. One such piece of graffiti is one mans expression of his torment. ‘If you can but wont. Why do you put off the pleasures of our meeting. Why do you build up my hopes and then tell me to return tomorrow? In this way you force death upon me. Because you force me to live without you. Certainly it will be a kind action that puts an end to my suffering.’ Throughout Pompeii there is much evidence of love written on the city walls. One such piece of graffiti is one mans expression of his torment. ‘If you can but wont. Why do you put off the pleasures of our meeting. Why do you build up my hopes and then tell me to return tomorrow? In this way you force death upon me. Because you force me to live without you. Certainly it will be a kind action that puts an end to my suffering.’ This shows one way that citizens of Pompeii coped with their heartache. This shows one way that citizens of Pompeii coped with their heartache.

11. Graffiti: Erotic and Explicit Messages There have been messages found throughout Pompeii of a more erotic and explicit nature. These were, unsurprisingly, found on the lavatory and brothel walls. ‘May I always and everywhere be as potent as I was here.’ There have been messages found throughout Pompeii of a more erotic and explicit nature. These were, unsurprisingly, found on the lavatory and brothel walls. ‘May I always and everywhere be as potent as I was here.’ In Herculaneum there was a message found in the House of the Gem, on the lavatory wall. ‘Apollinaris, the physician of the Emperor, Titus, had a good shit here.’ In Herculaneum there was a message found in the House of the Gem, on the lavatory wall. ‘Apollinaris, the physician of the Emperor, Titus, had a good shit here.’ This source demonstrates a cheekier side to the citizens of Pompeii. This source demonstrates a cheekier side to the citizens of Pompeii.

12. Official Inscriptions It is said that Pompeii ‘may be likened to one vast archive.’ Most of the inscriptions that have been found in Pompeii are graffiti, however there have been official inscriptions found on marble, bronze and stone through the city. Much of the official inscriptions that have been found are dedicatory, such as Eumachia, a rich priestess of Venus, dedicated the building of Eumachia to the Julio- Claudian dynasty. There are also epitaphs found on tombs and civic charters found of plates that have been placed upon public buildings. It is said that Pompeii ‘may be likened to one vast archive.’ Most of the inscriptions that have been found in Pompeii are graffiti, however there have been official inscriptions found on marble, bronze and stone through the city. Much of the official inscriptions that have been found are dedicatory, such as Eumachia, a rich priestess of Venus, dedicated the building of Eumachia to the Julio- Claudian dynasty. There are also epitaphs found on tombs and civic charters found of plates that have been placed upon public buildings.

13. Dedications One variety of official inscriptions found in Pompeii and Herculaneum are dedications. Located in the Forum of Pompeii was the Building of Eumachia, on the exterior of which were found two dedications. One of which was to Romulus, who was the mythical founder of Rome after the Gods chose him to rule in favour of his brother Remus. The other is to Aeneas, a legendary hero who is the family of the Augustus family. One variety of official inscriptions found in Pompeii and Herculaneum are dedications. Located in the Forum of Pompeii was the Building of Eumachia, on the exterior of which were found two dedications. One of which was to Romulus, who was the mythical founder of Rome after the Gods chose him to rule in favour of his brother Remus. The other is to Aeneas, a legendary hero who is the family of the Augustus family. The strength of these dedications is showing who the hero of the era were. The strength of these dedications is showing who the hero of the era were. The weakness is that they do not offer much else. The weakness is that they do not offer much else.

14. Electoral Inscriptions The political figures who lived in Pompeii and Herculaneum had gain support and become known so that they could become popular enough to be voted in. One way of doing so was to leave slogans around town. ‘Vesonius Primus urges the election of Gnaeus Helvius as aedile, a man worthy of public office.’ The actual candidate did not sign their own slogans, rather their supports such as family and friends. Even though women could not vote, they still influenced the voting by many of them signing. The political figures who lived in Pompeii and Herculaneum had gain support and become known so that they could become popular enough to be voted in. One way of doing so was to leave slogans around town. ‘Vesonius Primus urges the election of Gnaeus Helvius as aedile, a man worthy of public office.’ The actual candidate did not sign their own slogans, rather their supports such as family and friends. Even though women could not vote, they still influenced the voting by many of them signing. The strength of these is that they give us an insight into a way of gaining popularity by politicians. The strength of these is that they give us an insight into a way of gaining popularity by politicians. The weakness is that this sources provides us with a narrow field of information. The weakness is that this sources provides us with a narrow field of information.

15. Public Notices Written with a brush in either black or red in white walls were a number of public notices. These were mostly painted by proffesionals on the exterior of houses, although they could be painted on any building. Before written upon the walls had to be whitewashed with lime, then after dark they would be wrote upon with moonlight and an oil lamp. Usually people were employed to do this, however sometimes individuals did it themselves, ‘Scripsit Aemilis celer singulus ad lunam’ this inscription is a boast by Aemilis Celer that he wrote it himself by moonlight. Written with a brush in either black or red in white walls were a number of public notices. These were mostly painted by proffesionals on the exterior of houses, although they could be painted on any building. Before written upon the walls had to be whitewashed with lime, then after dark they would be wrote upon with moonlight and an oil lamp. Usually people were employed to do this, however sometimes individuals did it themselves, ‘Scripsit Aemilis celer singulus ad lunam’ this inscription is a boast by Aemilis Celer that he wrote it himself by moonlight. The strength of public notices is that it demonstrates some opinions of the time as well as some events that took place. The strength of public notices is that it demonstrates some opinions of the time as well as some events that took place. The weakness is that most of the writings of from before the eruption of AD 79. The weakness is that most of the writings of from before the eruption of AD 79.

16. Advertisements Advertisements were painted across many walls in Pompeii and Herculaneum. One of the most successful property owners in Pompeii before the eruption of Vesuvius, Julia Felix, wrote this advertisement, ‘In the property of Julia Felix, daughter of Spurius, elegant thermal baths for refined people, shop with lodgings above and apartments on the first floor to let for five years from 1 st August until 1 st August of the sixth year. The contract may be renewed by mutual agreement after five years have passed. Advertisements were painted across many walls in Pompeii and Herculaneum. One of the most successful property owners in Pompeii before the eruption of Vesuvius, Julia Felix, wrote this advertisement, ‘In the property of Julia Felix, daughter of Spurius, elegant thermal baths for refined people, shop with lodgings above and apartments on the first floor to let for five years from 1 st August until 1 st August of the sixth year. The contract may be renewed by mutual agreement after five years have passed. The strength is that it provides evidence of one way they sales and deals were advertised. The strength is that it provides evidence of one way they sales and deals were advertised. The weakness is that it only provides information on the initial advertisement and none on the actual deal afterwards. The weakness is that it only provides information on the initial advertisement and none on the actual deal afterwards.