1. Contaminant Fate and Transport Processes Philip B. Bedient Environmental Science and Engineering Rice University, Houston, TX

2. Fate and Transport Advection and Dispersion – Covered in Days 1, 2 Sorption and Retardation Chemical/Abiotic processes Volatilization Biodegradation

3. Sorption and Retardation Sorption – association of dissolved or gaseous contaminant with a solid material Adsorption – surface process Absorption – internal process Leads to retardation of the contaminant front Desorption – reverse of either sorption process

4. Soil Grain Sorption

5. Linear Sorption Isotherm Sorption linearly related to aqueous concentration. Partition coefficient is K d K d is related to K ow

6. Partitioning to Solid Phase Octanol water partition coeff. Distribution coeff. Fraction in aqueous phase

7. Regression Eqns for Sorption

8. Retarded v. Non-retarded Species Sorption slows rate of advance of front Sorbing fronts will eventually get there Some compounds irreversibly sorb to soil

9. Retardation Factor

10. Retardation of Tracers

11. Abiotic Fate Processes Hydrolysis Oxidation- Reduction Elimination

13. Volatilization Transfer of contaminant from aqueous phase, NAPL, or sorbed phase directly to gas phase Equilibrium partitioning similar to octanol-water partitioning Partitioning equation known as Henry’s Law H c is the relationship between partial pressure and aqueous concentration of component 20% Oxygen (0.2 atm partial pressure) => 8 mg/L D.O.

14. Biodegradation Processes and Modeling Microbial Processes Kinetics Biodegradation Modeling

15. Biotic Transformations Aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation Reduces aqueous concentrations of contaminant Reduction of contaminant mass Most significant process resulting in reduction of contaminant mass in a system

16. Biodegradation Processes Conversion of contaminants to mineralized (e.g. CO 2, H 2 O, and salts) end-products via biological mechanisms Biotransformation refers to a biological process where the end-products are not minerals (e.g., transforming TCE to DCE) Involves the process of extracting energy from organic chemicals via oxidation of the organic chemicals

17. Fundamentals of Biodegradation All organics are biodegradable, BUT biodegradation requires specific conditions There is no Superbug - not Volkswagon Contaminants must be bioavailable Biodegradation rate and extent is controlled by a “limiting factor”

18. Requirements for Microbial Growth

19. Electron Exchange

20. Aerobic v. Anaerobic If oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor, the process is called aerobic biodegradation All other biological degradation processes are classified as anaerobic biodegradation In most cases, bacteria can only use one terminal electron acceptor Facultative aerobes use oxygen, but can switch to nitrate in the absence of oxygen

21. Aerobic Oxidation Cometabolism Anaerobic Denitrification Manganese reduction Iron reduction Sulfate reduction Methanogenesis Bacterial Metabolism

22. Ground Water Flow Plume of Dissolved Fuel Hydrocarbons Residual NAPL Mobile LNAPL Pool Methanogenesis Sulfate Reduction Iron (III) Reduction Dentrification Aerobic Respiration (Source: W,R, N, & W, 1999.)(Adapted from Lovley et al., 1994b.) Electron Acceptor Zone Formation

23. Dependence on Redox Condition

24. Substrates Primary substrate – Cake  enough available to be the sole energy source Secondary substrate – Icing  provides energy, not available in high enough concentration Cometabolism – Sprinkles  fortuitous transformation of a compound by a microbe relying on some other primary substrate

25. Transformation Process

26. Stoichiometry Electron Donor to Electron acceptor ratios  Hydrocarbon requirements for electron acceptor are well defined  Electron donor requirements for dechlorination are poorly defined  Cometabolic processes are not predictable Each Electron Donor/Electron Acceptor pair has a unique stoichiometric ratio

27. Oxygen Utilization of Substrates Benzene: C 6 H 6 + 7.5O 2 ––> 6CO 2 + 3H 2 O Stoichiometric ratio (F) of oxygen to benzene Each mg/L of benzene consumes 3.07 mg/L of O 2

28. Bioavailability AQUEOUS SORBED GASEOUS NON-AQUEOUS Not accessibleAccessible

29. Microbial Growth Region 1: Lag phase  microbes are adjusting to the new substrate (food source) Region 2 Exponential growth phase,  microbes have acclimated to the conditions Region 3 Stationary phase,  limiting substrate or electron acceptor limits the growth rate Region 4 Decay phase,  substrate supply has been exhausted

30. Biodegradation Kinetics The rate of biodegradation or biotransformation is generally the focus of environmental studies Microbial growth and substrate consumption rates have often been described using ‘Monod kinetics’ S is the substrate concentration [mg/L] X is the biomass concentration [mg/ L] k is the maximum substrate utilization rate [sec -1 ] K S is the half-saturation coefficient [mg/L]

31. Monod Kinetics First-order region, S << K S, the equation can be approximated by exponential decay (C = C 0 e –kt ) Center region, Monod kinetics must be used Zero-order region, S >> K S, the equation can be approximated by linear decay (C = C 0 – kt)

32. Modeling Biodegradation Three main methods for modeling biodegradation  Monod kinetics  First-order decay  Instantaneous reaction

33. Modeling First-Order Decay C n+1 = C n e –k∆t Generally assumes nothing about limiting substrates or electron acceptors Degradation rate is proportional to the concentration Generally used as a fitting parameter, encompassing a number of uncertain parameters BIOPLUME III can limit first-order decay to the available electron acceptors

34. Modeling Instantaneous Biodegradation Excess Hydrocarbon: H n > O n /F  O n+1 = 0 H n+1 = H n - O n /F Excess Oxygen: H n < O n /F  O n+1 = O n - H n F H n+1 = 0 All available substrate is biodegraded, limited only by the availability of terminal electron acceptors First used in BIOPLUME II

35. Sequential Electron Acceptor Models Newer models, such as BIOPLUME III, RT3D, and SEAM3D allow a sequential process After O 2 is depleted, begin using NO 3 – Continue down the list in this order  O 2 ––> NO 3 – ––> Fe 3+ ––> SO 4 2– ––> CO 2

36. Biodegradation in BIOPLUME II

37. Principle of Superposition

38. Initial Contaminant Plume

39. Model Parameters

40. Biodegrading Plume Original Plume ConcentrationPlume after two years Extraction Only - No Added O 2

41. Plume Concentrations Plume after two years O 2 Injected at 20 mg/L O 2 Injected at 40 mg/L

42. Dehalogenation Dehalogenation refers to the process of stripping halogens (generally Chlorine) from an organic molecule Dehalogenation is generally an anaerobic process, and is often referred to as reductive dechlorination R–Cl + 2e – + H + ––> R–H + Cl – Can occur via dehalorespiration or cometabolism Some rare cases show cometabolic dechlorination in an aerobic environment

43. Dehalogenation of PCE PCE (perchloroethylene or tetrachloroethylene) TCE (trichloroethylene) DCE (cis-, trans-, and 1,1-dichloroethylene VC (vinyl chloride)

44. Biodegradation Models Bioscreen Biochlor BIOPLUME II and III RT3D MT3D MS SEAM 3D