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Membranes Chapter 5
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Membrane Structure Phospholipids arranged in a bilayer
Globular proteins inserted in the lipid bilayer Fluid mosiac model – mosaic of proteins floats in or on the fluid lipid bilayer like boats on a pond
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Cellular membranes have 4 components
Phospholipid bilayer Flexible matrix, barrier to permeability Transmembrane proteins Integral membrane proteins Interior protein network Peripheral membrane proteins Cell surface markers Glycoproteins and glycolipids
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One method to embed specimen in resin
Both transmission electron microscope (TEM) and scanning (SEM) used to study membranes One method to embed specimen in resin 1µm shavings TEM shows layers
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Freeze-fracture visualizes inside of membrane
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Phospholipids Structure consists of Spontaneously forms a bilayer
Glycerol – a 3-carbon polyalcohol 2 fatty acids attached to the glycerol Nonpolar and hydrophobic (“water-fearing”) Phosphate group attached to the glycerol Polar and hydrophilic (“water-loving”) Spontaneously forms a bilayer Fatty acids are on the inside Phosphate groups are on both surfaces
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Bilayers are fluid Hydrogen bonding of water holds the 2 layers together Individual phospholipids and unanchored proteins can move through the membrane
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Environmental influences
Saturated fatty acids make the membrane less fluid than unsaturated fatty acids “Kinks” introduced by the double bonds keep them from packing tightly Most membranes also contain sterols such as cholesterol, which can either increase or decrease membrane fluidity, depending on the temperature Warm temperatures make the membrane more fluid than cold temperatures Cold tolerance in bacteria due to fatty acid desaturases
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Membrane Proteins Various functions: Transporters Enzymes
Cell-surface receptors Cell-surface identity markers Cell-to-cell adhesion proteins Attachments to the cytoskeleton
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Structure relates to function
Diverse functions arise from the diverse structures of membrane proteins Have common structural features related to their role as membrane proteins Peripheral proteins Anchoring molecules attach membrane protein to surface
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Anchoring molecules are modified lipids with
Nonpolar regions that insert into the internal portion of the lipid bilayer Chemical bonding domains that link directly to proteins
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Integral membrane proteins
Span the lipid bilayer (transmembrane proteins) Nonpolar regions of the protein are embedded in the interior of the bilayer Polar regions of the protein protrude from both sides of the bilayer Transmembrane domain Spans the lipid bilayer Hydrophobic amino acids arranged in α helices
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Proteins need only a single transmembrane domain to be anchored in the membrane, but they often have more than one such domain
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Bacteriorhodopsin has 7 transmembrane domains forming a structure within the membrane through which protons pass during the light-driven pumping of protons
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Membrane Proteins Pores
Extensive nonpolar regions within a transmembrane protein can create a pore through the membrane Cylinder of sheets in the protein secondary structure called a b-barrel Interior is polar and allows water and small polar molecules to pass through the membrane
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Passive Transport Passive transport is movement of molecules through the membrane in which No energy is required Molecules move in response to a concentration gradient Diffusion is movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration Will continue until the concentration is the same in all regions
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Major barrier to crossing a biological membrane is the hydrophobic interior that repels polar molecules but not nonpolar molecules Nonpolar molecules will move until the concentration is equal on both sides Limited permeability to small polar molecules Very limited permeability to larger polar molecules and ions
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Facilitated diffusion
Molecules that cannot cross membrane easily may move through proteins Move from higher to lower concentration Channel proteins Hydrophilic channel when open Carrier proteins Bind specifically to molecules they assist Membrane is selectively permeable
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Channel proteins Ion channels Allow the passage of ions
Gated channels – open or close in response to stimulus (chemical or electrical) 3 conditions determine direction Relative concentration on either side of membrane Voltage differences across membrane Gated channels – channel open or closed
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Carrier proteins Can help transport both ions and other solutes, such as some sugars and amino acids Requires a concentration difference across the membrane Must bind to the molecule they transport Saturation – rate of transport limited by number of transporters
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Osmosis Cytoplasm of the cell is an aqueous solution
Water is solvent Dissolved substances are solutes Osmosis – net diffusion of water across a membrane toward a higher solute concentration
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Osmotic concentration
When 2 solutions have different osmotic concentrations Hypertonic solution has a higher solute concentration Hypotonic solution has a lower solute concentration When two solutions have the same osmotic concentration, the solutions are isotonic Aquaporins facilitate osmosis
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Osmotic pressure Force needed to stop osmotic flow
Cell in a hypotonic solution gains water causing cell to swell – creates pressure If membrane strong enough, cell reaches counterbalance of osmotic pressure driving water in with hydrostatic pressure driving water out Cell wall of prokaryotes, fungi, plants, protists If membrane is not strong, may burst Animal cells must be in isotonic environments
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Maintaining osmotic balance
Some cells use extrusion in which water is ejected through contractile vacuoles Isosmotic regulation involves keeping cells isotonic with their environment Marine organisms adjust internal concentration to match sea water Terrestrial animals circulate isotonic fluid Plant cells use turgor pressure to push the cell membrane against the cell wall and keep the cell rigid
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Active Transport Requires energy – ATP is used directly or indirectly to fuel active transport Moves substances from low to high concentration Requires the use of highly selective carrier proteins
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Carrier proteins used in active transport include
Uniporters – move one molecule at a time Symporters – move two molecules in the same direction Antiporters – move two molecules in opposite directions Terms can also be used to describe facilitated diffusion carriers
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Sodium–potassium (Na+–K+) pump
Direct use of ATP for active transport Uses an antiporter to move 3 Na+ out of the cell and 2 K+ into the cell Against their concentration gradient ATP energy is used to change the conformation of the carrier protein Affinity of the carrier protein for either Na+ or K+ changes so the ions can be carried across the membrane
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Coupled transport Uses ATP indirectly
Uses the energy released when a molecule moves by diffusion to supply energy to active transport of a different molecule Symporter is used Glucose–Na+ symporter captures the energy from Na+ diffusion to move glucose against a concentration gradient
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Bulk Transport Exocytosis Endocytosis
Movement of substances into the cell Phagosytosis – cell takes in particulate matter Pinocytosis – cell takes in only fluid Receptor-mediated endocytosis – specific molecules are taken in after they bind to a receptor Exocytosis Movement of substances out of cell Requires energy
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In the human genetic disease familial hypercholesterolemia, the LDL receptors lack tails, so they are never fastened in the clathrin-coated pits and as a result, do not trigger vesicle formation. The cholesterol stays in the bloodstream of affected individuals, accumulating as plaques inside arteries and leading to heart attacks.
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Exocytosis Movement of materials out of the cell
Used in plants to export cell wall material Used in animals to secrete hormones, neurotransmitters, digestive enzymes
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