1. CHAPTER SIX Attention and Memory

2. The Information Processing Model
Uses a computer metaphor to explain how people process stimuli
The information-processing approach is based on the assumption that information is processed through a series of hypothetical stages or stores.

3. Attentional and Perceptual Processing
Sensory memory
Incoming information from
the senses is retained in
the body’s nervous system
Memory details depend on how
much attention is given to the
stimulus.
If attention is given, then the info is passed to the next stage of memory.
Age differences are not typically found at this stage; however, they do begin to appear when attentional processes are applied to sensory memory.

4. The amount of attention one has to apply to a particular situation
Attentional Control
Speed of Processing
How quickly and efficiently these early steps in information processing are completed
Slowing of processing with
age is task-specific.
Processing Resources
The amount of attention one has to apply to a particular situation
May account for ability to remember.
Two theories:
Inhibitory loss
Attentional loss

5. Attentional Control
Inhibitory loss
The idea that older persons have task-irrelevant thoughts that interfere with processing.
Research shows inhibition is not universal across all aspects of stimulation.
Certain strategies can compensate for irrelevant information interference.

6. Divided attention: multitasking
Attentional Loss
Divided attention: multitasking
Older persons are more penalized when they must divide their attention and find it more difficult to multitask.
Writing while listening
Conversing while driving
Extensive practice can
minimize poor performance
on multitasking.
Older adults use strategies
to compensate for inability
to multitask.

7. Let’s compare notes!

8. Memory Test

9. Information Processing
Automatic processing: occurs without person being consciously aware
Effortful processing: requires one’s full attention

10. Information Processing
Encoding: process of getting information into memory
Storage: happens when info is kept in memory
Retrieval: getting info back out of memory

11. Memory Processes Working Memory
The active processes and structures involved in holding information in mind
Simultaneously using that information, sometimes in conjunction with incoming information to:
Solve a problem
Make a decision
Learn new information

12. Implicit versus Explicit Memory
Explicit memory (declarative)
Intentional and conscious remembering of information that is learned at a specific point in time
An example is remembering who wrote the Gettysburg address.
Implicit memory (procedural memory)
Retrieval of information without conscious or intentional recollection
Familiar tasks, such as brushing teeth or driving a car.
Smaller age differences than explicit memory

13. Long Term Memory
The ability to remember extensive amounts of information from a few seconds, hours, or decades.
Semantic Memory
Learning and remembering the meaning of words and concepts that are not tied to specific occurrences of events in time
Episodic Memory
Conscious recollection of information from a specific event or point in time

14. Long Term Memory
Recall Memory
Occurs when one remembers information without any help or cues
Do you remember what was on the first slide?

15. Long Term Memory Recognition Memory
Occurs when one selects from a list of several options
Were any of the following images on the first slide?

16. Autobiographical Memory
Memory Processes
Autobiographical Memory
Involves remembering information and events from our own life
It is a form of episodic memory.
Flashbulb memories
Vivid memories of very personal or emotional events

17. Factors Affecting Age Differences in Memory
Encoding
Elaborative rehearsal involves making connections between incoming information and information already known.
Use of strategies during encoding
Organize
Establish links
Older persons are not as effective in strategies as younger.
Pet scans show age differences in encoding.

18. Misinformation and memory
Retrieval
False-fame effect
Mistaking familiarity for fame
Results indicate older persons have a deficit in retrieval.
Misinformation and memory
Source memory
The ability to remember the source of a familiar event as well as if the event is real or imagined
False Memory
When one remembers items or events that did not occur
Remembering childhood abuse
that never happened
Picking a person out of a lineup
that is innocent

19. Eyewitness Testimony, Part II
Uploaded by CBSNewsOnline on Mar 8, 2009
Lesley Stahl explores the task of an eyewitness to choose a criminal out of line up through memory.

20. Memory in Context Prospective Memory
Involves remembering to perform a planned action in the future (remembering to remember)
Older patients remember to take medication better than busy middle-aged patients.

21. Cognitive Reserve: Factors That Preserve Memory
Exercising memory
Thinking of memory as a mental muscle
Multilingualism and Cognitive Functioning
Research suggests that older adults who speak four or more languages had the best cognitive state independent of education.
Semantic Memory in Service of Episodic Memory
Older adults are better at remembering related as opposed to unrelated word pairs, indicating that episodic memory might be a useful encoding strategy

22. Negative Stereotypes and Memory Performance
Older adults do worse on a memory task if they believe that age hampers memory ability

23. Training Memory Skills Strategies
Memory Training
Training Memory Skills
Strategies
External aids: rely on environmental resources
Notebooks or calendars
Internal aids: rely on mental processes
Imagery, rote rehearsal, mnemonics

24. Only modest, short term improvement No medical breakthroughs
Memory Drugs
Only modest, short term improvement
No medical breakthroughs
Combining Strategies
What works with one may not work for all

25. Normal versus Abnormal Memory Aging
Distinguish by asking if changes disrupt a person’s ability to function in everyday life
Repeatedly forgetting to turn off the stove
Forgets the way home
Alzheimer’s
Progressive destruction of memory
Wernicke-Korsakoff
Loss of recent memory and sometimes inability to form new memory

26. Memory and Mental Health
Depression
Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness
Dementias
Declines in cognitive performance
Irreversible and untreatable
Studies found that negative effects of depression on memory are greater in young and middle-aged than in older adults.

27. Nutrition and Drugs that Can Impair Memory
Alcohol and caffeine, if abused, will affect memory.
Sedatives and tranquilizers have been found to impair memory.