2. Pollination Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male anther to the female stigma.

3. Importance of Pollination Sexual reproduction is important for evolution as it produces variable offspring, creating diversity and variation among populations (shuffling of genes). Variation is required for Natural Selection to occur. Sexual reproduction is advantageous to an organism only if it happens with someone other than itself!

4. Sexual Reproduction In animals it’s easy because you have separate male and female individuals. In flowering plants it’s not so easy, because most flowers have both male and female parts in them, called perfect flowers. Flowering plants have evolved special ways to prevent inbreeding.

5. Function of Flowers Flowers are designed to attract pollinators with colorful petals, scent, nectar and pollen.

6. Avoiding Self-Pollination 1. Timing – male and female structures mature at different times. 2. Morphological – structure of male and female organs prevent self-pollination (dioecious plants). 3. Biochemical – chemical on surface of pollen and stigma/style that prevent pollen tube germination on the same flower.

7. Methods of Pollination Plants use one of two methods for pollination: 1. Wind Pollination 2. Animal Pollination

8. Wind Pollination Gymnosperms and some flowering plants (grasses, trees) use wind pollination. Flowers are small, inconspicuous and grouped together. Not a very efficient method (too chancy and wasteful).

9. Animal Pollinators Many flowering plants rely on animals for cross-pollination: Insects – bees, wasps, flies, butterflies, moths. Birds – hummingbirds, honey creepers. Mammals – bats, mice, monkeys.

10. Pollen The shape and form of pollen is related to its method of pollination… Insect-pollinated species have sticky or barbed pollen grains. Wind-pollinated species is lightweight, small and smooth (corn pollen).

11. Co-evolution Co-evolution involves a change in the genetic composition of one organism triggered by a genetic change in another. Animal-flowering plant interaction is a classic example of co-evolution: 1. Plants evolve elaborate methods to attract animal pollinators. 2. Animals evolved specialized body parts and behaviors that aid plant pollination.

12. Bees Bees see yellow, blue and UV light. Flowers have developed “honey guides” and bee landing platforms. Bees are the most important group of flower pollinators.

13. Butterflies and Moths Also guided by sight and smell. Butterflies can see red and orange flowers. Usually shaped as a long tube because of insect’s proboscis – to get nectar. Moth-pollinated flowers are usually white or pale, with sweet, strong odor – for night pollination.

14. Flies and Beetles Flies like flowers that smell like dung or rotten meat. Lay their eggs there, but larvae die due to lack of food. Beetles pollinate flowers that are dull in color, but have very strong odor

15. Birds Birds have a good sense of colour, they like yellow or red flowers. Birds do not have a good sense of smell, so bird- pollinated flowers usually have little odor. Flowers provide fluid nectar.

16. Mammals Bats pollinate at night, so flowers are white. Mouse-pollinated flowers are usually inconspicuous, and open at night.

17. Why Pollinate ? Pollinators get a food reward for moving pollen to another flower. Nectar – a sugary solution produced in special flower glands called nectaries. Nectar concentration matches energy requirements of the pollinator: bird and bee pollinated flowers have different sugar concentrations.

18. Why Pollinate ? Pollen – is high in protein, some bees and beetles eat it. Flowers can produce two kinds of pollen: 1. Normal 2. Sterile but tasty

19. Getting Attention Plants advertise their pollen and nectar rewards with colours, scents and honey guides.

20. Plant Mimicry Some plants take advantage of the sex drive of certain insects… Certain orchids look like female wasps, and even smell like them! Males try to mate with them, and in the process they pollinate the plant The orchid gets pollinated, but the male wasp only gets frustrated!

21. Plant Mimicry Some plants take advantage of the sex drive of certain insects. Certain orchids look like female wasps, and even smell like them.

22. Plant Mimicry Males try to mate with them, and in the process they pollinate the plant. The orchid gets pollinated, but the male wasp only gets frustrated.