1. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Field Research: Naturalistic and Case-Study Research Graziano and Raulin Research Methods: Chapter 6 This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: (1) Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; (2) Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; (3) Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

2. Field Research Naturalistic Observation (Chapter 6) Naturalistic Observation (Chapter 6) Archival Research (Chapter 6) Archival Research (Chapter 6) Surveys (Chapter 13) Surveys (Chapter 13) Case Studies (Chapter 6) Case Studies (Chapter 6) Program Evaluation (Chapter 13) Program Evaluation (Chapter 13) Field Experiments (Chapter 13) Field Experiments (Chapter 13) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

3. Challenge of Low-Constraint Research Involves observation of participants in their natural surroundings Involves observation of participants in their natural surroundings –Can be difficult to observe behavior in natural surroundings –Often we are not sure what behaviors are important until we begin observations –Without the controls of the laboratory, participants are free to do what they want to do, and not what we are hoping to observe

4. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Naturalistic Observation Examples Darwin’s voyage on the HMS Beagle (the data behind his theory of natural selection) Darwin’s voyage on the HMS Beagle (the data behind his theory of natural selection) Goodall's study of chimpanzees Goodall's study of chimpanzees Levine’s study of the Love Canal Levine’s study of the Love Canal Davis’s study of public spanking Davis’s study of public spanking Rosenhan’s study of psychiatric hospitalization Rosenhan’s study of psychiatric hospitalization

5. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Case-Study Examples Freud’s study of patients while he formed his psychoanalytic theory Freud’s study of patients while he formed his psychoanalytic theory Witmer’s study of children in the first psychology clinic in North America Witmer’s study of children in the first psychology clinic in North America Piaget’s study of the development of children Piaget’s study of the development of children Phillips’s study of people with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) Phillips’s study of people with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) First’s study of people with apotemnophilia First’s study of people with apotemnophilia

6. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) When to Use These Methods For questions involving the natural flow of behavior For questions involving the natural flow of behavior When first studying a research area When first studying a research area When testing the feasibility of a procedure When testing the feasibility of a procedure As a way of discovering contingencies As a way of discovering contingencies When interested in a single individual When interested in a single individual To test the generalizability of laboratory findings To test the generalizability of laboratory findings

7. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Information Gained from These Methods Provides new descriptive information Provides new descriptive information Can suggest hypotheses for later higher-constraint research Can suggest hypotheses for later higher-constraint research Can negate a general proposition Can negate a general proposition Provides information about contingencies Provides information about contingencies

8. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Problem Statements and Hypotheses Problem statements are often general and flexible in low-constraint research studies Problem statements are often general and flexible in low-constraint research studies –Problem statements and hypotheses may evolve (i.e, start out general and become more specific) as the study progresses Unable to test causal hypotheses with low-constraint research Unable to test causal hypotheses with low-constraint research

9. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Making Observations Ways to observe behavior Ways to observe behavior –Unobtrusive observation: observing behavior without participants’ knowledge –Participant observation: observing behavior while participating in the situation Want to reduce measurement reactivity Want to reduce measurement reactivity –People behaving differently when observed Reactive measures: enhance reactivity Reactive measures: enhance reactivity Nonreactive measures: minimize reactivity Nonreactive measures: minimize reactivity

10. Unobtrusive Measures Measures of behavior that are not obvious to those being measured Measures of behavior that are not obvious to those being measured Inherently nonreactive Inherently nonreactive Webb et al. suggest hundreds of clever unobtrusive measures Webb et al. suggest hundreds of clever unobtrusive measures Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

11. Archival Records Exist independent of a research study Exist independent of a research study –Kept for purposes other than research –May be valuable in some research studies –Examples: government records, school and hospital records, census data, etc. Access to such archival records are restricted by legal and ethical constraints Access to such archival records are restricted by legal and ethical constraints Valuable data source for some studies Valuable data source for some studies

12. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Ethical Issues with Using Unobtrusive Measures Use of unobtrusive measures (including archival records) raises ethical issues Use of unobtrusive measures (including archival records) raises ethical issues –Participants are not given the right to say no –Some of the archival records contain sensitive data Researchers need to show the necessity for unobtrusive measures and safeguards to protect the rights of the participants Researchers need to show the necessity for unobtrusive measures and safeguards to protect the rights of the participants –Must have IRB approval

13. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Sampling of Participants Try to obtain a representative sample Try to obtain a representative sample –Representative samples allow us to generalize findings to the larger group Sampling is often not under the control of the researcher in low-constraint research Sampling is often not under the control of the researcher in low-constraint research –Therefore, caution is required in interpreting the results –Generalize only to similar participants and NOT to the general population

14. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Sampling of Situations People (and animals) behave differently in different situations People (and animals) behave differently in different situations –To get an adequate picture of behavior, we need to sample the behavior in many situations Sampling many situations will indicate how consistent behavior is Sampling many situations will indicate how consistent behavior is It also gives clues about what factors may be affecting the behavior It also gives clues about what factors may be affecting the behavior

15. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Sampling of Behaviors Even in the same situation, people may behave differently on different occasions Even in the same situation, people may behave differently on different occasions –Repeated sampling of behavior in a specific situation will indicate the consistency of the behavior Repeated observation (essentially a replication) prevents us from developing theories based on a single, unusual behavioral response Repeated observation (essentially a replication) prevents us from developing theories based on a single, unusual behavioral response

16. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Evaluating the Data Low-constraint data sets are a rich source of information Low-constraint data sets are a rich source of information –Data usually needs to be coded (i.e., simplified and organized) –Analyses depend on the questions and the type of data Must be cautious in interpreting data from low-constraint research Must be cautious in interpreting data from low-constraint research

17. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Limitations Poor representativeness Poor representativeness Poor replicability Poor replicability Ex post facto fallacy Ex post facto fallacy Limitations of the observer Limitations of the observer Going beyond the data Going beyond the data

18. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Poor Representativeness Most low-constraint studies have small, nonrandom samples Most low-constraint studies have small, nonrandom samples Rarely do the samples represent the population Rarely do the samples represent the population Consequently, it is dangerous to generalize your findings too broadly Consequently, it is dangerous to generalize your findings too broadly

19. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Poor Replicability Studies can be replicated only if Studies can be replicated only if –The procedures are clearly specified –The procedures were followed exactly In low-constraint research In low-constraint research –Procedures are often not specified –They may change as the study continues –They are often unique to the observer Therefore, replication is difficult Therefore, replication is difficult

20. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Ex Post Facto Fallacy Definition: Interpreting an observed contingency as if it represented a causal connection Definition: Interpreting an observed contingency as if it represented a causal connection –Low-constraint observation will never provide the controls for such strong conclusions If ex post facto conclusions are interpreted as hypotheses to be studied, and not as established facts, they serve a useful scientific purpose If ex post facto conclusions are interpreted as hypotheses to be studied, and not as established facts, they serve a useful scientific purpose

21. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Limitations of the Observer Low-constraint studies often rely on the observational skills of the researcher Low-constraint studies often rely on the observational skills of the researcher Detailed procedures are not specified Detailed procedures are not specified –Specific procedures decrease flexibility –However, detailed procedures could constrain the observer in a way that would limit experimenter biases Give up some control for the flexibility Give up some control for the flexibility

22. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Experimenter Bias It is difficult in low-constraint research for the researcher to avoid influencing participants (called Experimenter reactivity) It is difficult in low-constraint research for the researcher to avoid influencing participants (called Experimenter reactivity) Experimenter effects can be controlled in higher-constraint research Experimenter effects can be controlled in higher-constraint research

23. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010) Going Beyond the Data Low-constraint data are often intriguing Low-constraint data are often intriguing Nevertheless, one must be careful in drawing strong conclusions Nevertheless, one must be careful in drawing strong conclusions Rosenhan broadly over-interpreted his data, even distorting the data Rosenhan broadly over-interpreted his data, even distorting the data Interpretation should take into account other information we know about a phenomenon Interpretation should take into account other information we know about a phenomenon

24. Ethical Principles Primary Ethical Issues in Low- Constraint Research are: Primary Ethical Issues in Low- Constraint Research are: –Informed Consent –Confidentiality –Sensitivity of the Data An IRB can give the researcher valuable guidance An IRB can give the researcher valuable guidance Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2010)

25. Summary Low-constraint research provide valuable information Low-constraint research provide valuable information Types of low-constraint research Types of low-constraint research –Naturalistic observation –Case-study research The inherent limitations of these methods demand appropriate caution The inherent limitations of these methods demand appropriate caution