1. FAASTeam CFI Workshop #6
Module 6, Core Topics 11 and 12:
Takeoff, Landings, and Low Altitude Maneuvering
Aircraft Operational Limitations
Jim Leavitt, CFI WS NPL AEA x214
Todd E Burk, CFI WS POR ASW

2. This presentation is approved as a means to provide CFIs with orientation for FAASTeam Approach and Landing Clinics.
Additional training to compliment this presentation will be available for CFIs who will conduct a Takeoff and Landing Clinic.
FPMs may use this presentation to accomplish instructor training required for Approach and Landing “Core Group” members who attend CFI Workshop 6. Those attendees who volunteer will conduct “Landing Clinics” associated with the FAASTeam’s Approach and Landing Initiative. Additional training will be provided for those Core Group members.

3. Takeoff, Landing, and Low Altitude Maneuvering ~
Module #6 – Core Topic #11,
Takeoff, Landing, and Low Altitude Maneuvering ~
Takeoff, approach and landing procedures
Aircraft control in various Areas of Operation
Identify strengths and weaknesses
Let’s take a look as some statistics
Encourage Safety through Awareness
Are all of your students registered at FAASafety.gov?

4. Clinic Objectives
Reduce the Risk of Accidents due to Improper Takeoffs, Landings and Loss of Aircraft Control.
Evaluating Takeoff and Landing Procedures and Techniques.
Encourage you to maintain your Takeoff and Landing skills through a Proficiency Program. (WINGS)
Review recent General Aviation accident statistics for Takeoff and Landings to Increase Awareness and Safety.
Encourage you to maintain your Takeoff and Landing skills through a proficiency program. (WINGS)
Briefly discuss the WINGS Program and offer enrollment handout information. 4

5. Why Focus on Take-offs, Landings and Aircraft Control?
The 2007 AOPA Nall report showed:
16.4% Of General Aviation Accidents occurred during the Take-Off phase of Flight.
Statistics indicate 16.4% of GA accidents occur during the TAKEOFF phase of flight.
This was a take off accident with a student pilot attempting a touch and go with a 20 kt. Tailwind. The pilot was unhurt. 5

6. Why Focus on Take-off and Landings?
The 2007 AOPA Nall report showed:
40.3% Of accidents occurred during the Landing phase of Flight.
Statistics indicate 40.3% of GA accidents occur during the LANDING phase of flight.
The pilot of this P210 attempted to land going too fast. With a 17 knot tailwind the airplane was allowed to touchdown in the last 1/3 of the runway, went off the side of the runway, struck some lights, signs and fence, went into a ditch and came to rest on an access road just north of the airport.
Interesting point, this pilot thought something like this would never happen to him. A rejected landing would have been the right choice. 6

7. Go arounds gone bad

8. Go arounds gone bad.

9. “What Can this Clinic Do for Me?”
Offer a Proficiency Evaluation.
Improve Takeoff, Landing and Aircraft Control Skills
Reinforce Good Habits.
Encourage Involvement in the WINGS Program
Read and discuss 9

10. “What Will this Clinic Do for Me?”
Help Identify Your Piloting Strengths and Weaknesses.
Earn Credit Towards The Pilot Proficiency Program (WINGS).
Read and discuss 10

11. Let’s Get Busy!
Photo © Danny Fritsche 11

12. Always keep the Aircraft on the Centerline of the Taxiway and Runway.
Centerline Control
Read the Slide and discuss the importance of centerline control. Discuss proper rudder control, nose steering and attention outside of the aircraft.
Always keep the Aircraft on the Centerline of the Taxiway and Runway. 12

13. Normal Takeoff Review
Read the Slide and discuss a normal takeoff. Emphasize centerline control, and use of recommended manufacturer speeds and proper use of performance charts. 13

14. Normal Take Off - Common Errors
Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing into position on the active runway.
Abrupt use of the throttle.
Failure to check engine instruments for signs of malfunction after applying takeoff power.
Failure to anticipate the airplane’s left turning tendency on initial acceleration.
Read the Slide and discuss
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 14

15. Normal Take Off - Common Errors (continued)
Overcorrecting for left turning tendency.
Relying solely on the airspeed indicator rather than developed feel for indications of speed and airplane controllability during acceleration and lift-off.
Failure to attain proper lift-off attitude.
Inadequate compensation for torque/P-factor during initial climb resulting in a sideslip.
Over-control of elevators during initial climb out.
Read the Slide and discuss
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 15

16. Crosswind Takeoff Review
Talk about proper use of flight controls
Rudder provides directional control until airborne
Discuss How aileron controls drift once airborne
Horizontal component of lift
Transitioning to a crab once airborne and no further contact with ground is assured,
Discuss various crosswind techniques i.e. rotate higher airspeed, lift up onto one wheel. 16

17. Application of Aileron
Discuss proper technique for application of aileron in crosswind takeoff. 17

18. X-Wind Take Off - Common Errors
Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing onto the active runway.
Using less than full aileron pressure into the wind initially on the takeoff roll.
Mechanical use of aileron control rather than sensing the need for varying aileron control input through feel for the airplane.
Read the Slide and discuss
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 18

19. X-Wind Take Off - Common Errors (Continued)
Premature lift-off resulting in side-skipping.
Excessive aileron input in the latter stage of the takeoff roll resulting in a steep bank into the wind at lift-off.
Inadequate drift correction after lift-off.
Read the Slide and discuss
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 19

20. Slow Flight or MCA
Discuss the purpose of flight at MCA? (control feel, sloppiness at slow speeds) 20

21. What’s going on with drag vs airspeed?
Excellent insight from Todd Burk, FAASTeam Program Manager, Central Region
“I often compare this graph to a person that has financial stability or "money in the bank". If you spend more than you make then you will go bankrupt. How do you make money? With more thrust and a reduced angle of attack. How do you spend money? By reducing the power and increasing the angle of attack i.e. beginning the landing flare. The idea is to be out of altitude and money at the same time, not one before the other. If you get that sinking feeling and you haven't contacted the ground yet, you need to start adding money to the bank before you go bankrupt. By the same token, if you can add back pressure and initiate a climb,before you touch down, you have too much money in the bank. (Exchange of energy for altitude)”

22. FAA-H-8083-3A Airplane Flying Handbook
Definition
The Airplane Flying Handbook FAA-H A Defines Minimum Controllable airspeed as a speed at which any further increase in angle of attack or load factor, or reduction in power will cause an immediate stall.
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 22

23. Slow Flight - Common Errors
Failure to adequately clear the area.
Inadequate back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, resulting in altitude loss.
Excessive back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, resulting in a climb, followed by a rapid reduction in airspeed and “mushing.”
Inadequate compensation for adverse yaw during turns.
Read the Slide and discuss. Inadequate compensation for adverse yaw or improper use of rudder (coordination) can result in loss of control and spins in the event of a stall.
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 23

24. Slow Flight - Common Errors (Continued)
Fixation on the airspeed indicator.
Failure to anticipate changes in lift as flaps are extended or retracted.
Inadequate power management.
Inability to adequately divide attention between airplane control and orientation.
Read the Slide and discuss
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 24

25. FAA-H-8083-3A Airplane Flying Handbook
Steep Turns
Talk through a steep turn
Clearing the area
Topics
Adverse Yaw
Coordination
Need for additional power due to load factor and induced drag
Stall speed increase due to load factor
Smooth coordinated (rudder) Roll in and roll out
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 25

26. Steep Turns - Common Errors
Failure to adequately clear the area.
Excessive pitch change during entry or recovery.
Attempts to start recovery prematurely.
Failure to stop the turn on a precise heading.
Excessive rudder during recovery, resulting in skidding.
Read the Slide and discuss
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 26

27. Steep Turns - Common Errors (continued)
Inadequate power management.
Inadequate airspeed control.
Poor coordination.
Gaining altitude in right turns and/or losing altitude in left turns.
Failure to maintain constant bank angle.
Read the Slide and discuss
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 27

28. Steep Turns - Common Errors (continued)
Disorientation.
Attempting to perform the maneuver by instrument reference rather than visual reference.
Failure to scan for other traffic during the maneuver.
Read the Slide and discuss
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 28

29. Power Off Stall Recovery 1. Reduce Angle of Attack
Recognition
Power Off Stall Recovery 1. Reduce Angle of Attack
2. Add Power
3. Keep Wings Level
4. Use adequate Rudder
Read the Slide and discuss 29

30. Stall Recognition Power On Stall Recovery 1. Reduce Angle of Attack
2. Keep Wings Level
3. Use adequate Rudder
Read the Slide and discuss
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 30

31. FAA-H-8083-3A Airplane Flying Handbook
Stabilized Approach
Airspeed control- Elevator
Rate/ angle of descent controlled by Power
Emphasize that a stabilized approach consists of : airplane properly configured (gear, flaps, and power) , Maintaining extended centerline on final and desired approach speed for the weight* ( 3-5 degree glide path to a predetermined touchdown point ( within the first 1/3 of the runway).
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 31

32. Gross Wt Compensation 80 kts @ Gross
Divide actual wt by gross wt to get % of gross (2000 by 2500 = 80%)
Subtract % of gross from 100% (100%-80%= 20%)
Divide % by 2 (20% by 2 = 10%)
Reduce your app spd by this % ( 10% of 80 kts = 8 kts. 80 – 8 = 72 kts)
Actual Speed for Approach…..72 kts 32

33. Landing - Common Errors
Failure to allow enough room on final to set up the approach, necessitating an overly steep approach and high sink rate.
Un-stabilized approach.
Undue delay in initiating glide path corrections.
Too low an airspeed on final resulting in inability to flare properly and landing hard.
Read the Slide and Discuss
Emphasize the need for total airspeed control.
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 33

34. Landing - Common Errors (continued)
Too high an airspeed resulting in floating on round out.
Prematurely reducing power to idle on round out resulting in hard landing.
Touchdown with excessive airspeed.
Excessive and/or unnecessary braking after touchdown.
Failure to maintain directional control.
Read the Slide and Discuss
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 34

35. Crosswind Landings
This is one of the most common areas of difficulty for most pilots
There are two basic techniques, the crabbing method and wing low or “side slip” method. Really the crabbing method is more suited to large aircraft. They have a lot more mass and when the rudder is used to take the crab out it takes more time for the aircraft to start moving off centerline. Whereas with a light aircraft it will move off the centerline almost immediately. The wing low or sideslip method is almost always a better technique.
As the Speed decreases so does the effectiveness of the flight controls. Many pilots also fail to continue to add more aileron control into the wind as the aircraft slows down on roll out. This can contribute to a loss of directional control.
Do you use the wind sock? Think about partial or no flap landing. Know your crosswind performance / limitations. 35

36. Crosswind Landings Common Errors
Attempting to land in crosswinds that exceed the airplane’s maximum demonstrated crosswind component.
Inadequate compensation for wind drift on the turn from base leg to final approach, resulting in undershooting or overshooting.
Inadequate compensation for wind drift on final approach.
Unstabilized approach.
Read the Slide and discuss
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 36

37. Crosswind Landings Common Errors (continued)
Failure to compensate for increased drag during sideslip resulting in excessive sink rate and/or too low an airspeed.
Touchdown while drifting.
Excessive airspeed on touchdown.
Failure to apply appropriate flight control inputs during rollout.
Read the Slide and discuss
Be sure and emphasize as the aircraft slows down you should continue to add more aileron into the wind so that at the end of the roll out, you have full aileron deflection into the wind.
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 37

38. Crosswind Landings Common Errors (continued)
Failure to maintain direction control on rollout.
Excessive braking.
Read the Slide and discuss
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 38

39. Go Around From Rejected Landing
Read the Slide and discuss
YOU NEED TO MAINTAIN PROFICIENCY IN THIS MANEUVER. If it gets outside of your abilities or the capabilities of the airplane, then GO AROUND!
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 39

40. Go Around Common Errors
Pitch attitude increased excessively resulting in a stall
Applying only partial power
Failure to reconfigure the aircraft (gear and Flaps) for climb
Retracting the flaps too quickly
Elevator trim (excessive forward pressures)
Read the Slide and discuss
Don’t you dare do this too late!!! Make a decision to go around! In a retractable gear airplane, leave the gear alone if you do not need the climb performance. Too many people have executed a go around only to follow it up with a gear-up landing.
FAA-H A Airplane Flying Handbook 40

41. FAASTeam CFI Workshop #6
Module #6, Core Topic #11
Questions?
Comments?
Ideas?
Quiz time ~
Sum up, add your comments and experiences, answer questions

42. 1. If you realize you are low on the approach, you should
a. Initiate a 360 degree and enter the pattern at the appropriate altitude
b. Retract flaps
c. Immediately apply power
d. Increase the pitch attitude
2. If you bounce your landing, you should
a. Force the airplane onto the ground
b. Go- Around
c. Add power and re-land
d. Let the instructor land the airplane

43. 4. What is a stabilized approach?
3. True or False; The takeoff or landing speed is generally a function of the stall speed or minimum flying speed.
4. What is a stabilized approach?
5. During takeoff or landing a cross wind is only a factor when it is in excess of ten miles per hour or gusty.
True or false?
Answers follow
Self correct, each attendee must get a total of 70% for total combined Module quiz

44. 1. If you realize you are low on the approach, you should
a. Initiate a 360 degree and enter the pattern at the appropriate altitude
b. Retract flaps
c. Immediately apply power
d. Increase the pitch attitude
c. Apply power - Airplane Flying Handbook
2. If you bounce your landing, you should
a. Force the airplane onto the ground
b. Go- Around
c. Add power and re-land
d. Let the instructor land the airplane
b. go-around - Airplane Flying Handbook

45. 3. True or False; The takeoff or landing speed is generally a function of the stall speed or minimum flying speed.
True - Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.
4. What is a stabilized approach?
An approach in which the pilot establishes and maintains a constant angle glide path towards a predetermined point on the landing runway. Airplane flying handbook p. 8-7

46. 5. During takeoff or landing a cross wind is only a factor when it is in excess of ten miles per hour or gusty.
True or false?
False, in fact FAASTeam statistics demonstrate that a cross wind of significantly less than ten miles per hour is frequently a contributing factor to the cause of mishaps.

47. FAASTeam CFI Workshop #6
Take a Break!
Break for 10 minutes, if longer it can not count as part of the Core Topic time.

48. Core Topic 12 Aircraft Operational Limitations ?
Why do we care? Short discussion

49. Nice place, seemed a little short when we landed!
Continue

50. 1850’, grass, it’s hot, and the tanks are pretty full ….
Continue

51. ... only three of us and there’s a river beyond the trees ....
Continue

52. I think we’ll be ok to try a takeoff ……….
Continue

53. We’re not accelerating very well … I can’t stop now! ….
Continue

54. They didn’t consider the potential problems for takeoff before they landed there.
They didn’t consider options when they realized the takeoff might be difficult.
They didn’t confirm that the airplane’s performance capabilities would allow a safe takeoff, or not.
They didn’t plan for a point at which to abort the takeoff if acceleration was too slow.
The aircraft owner, his teenage son, and a CFI did all drown in the wreckage.
Continue

55. Take your pick, each one defines an end to options:
limitation - restriction: a principle that limits the extent of something;
limitation - the quality of being limited or restricted;
limitation - limit: the greatest amount of something that is possible or allowed;
limitation - (law) a time period after which suits cannot be brought;
limitation - an act of limiting or restricting (as by regulation)
Read and continue

56. What do you want your students to do?
Will they know what options exist?
Is “I think we can” good enough for you?
Where is the performance information a pilot needs in order to be sure?
What warnings are there
to tell us we’re at or near
a limit?
Read and continue

57. What do you want your students to do?
Make decisions based on knowledge and facts.
Will they know what options exist?
Give them problems to solve during their training.
Is “I think we can” good enough for you?
Give them the opportunity to evaluate conditions.
Where is the performance information a pilot needs in order to be sure?
Show them the Pilot Operation Handbook and performance charts, insist that they are used.
What warnings are there to tell us we’re at or near a limit?
Teach them to use situational awareness in all aspects of preflight planning and in flight
Discussion

58. Yes, take the time ….
…..get all that stuff out, review it yourself and then share your knowledge.
Continue

59. Emphasize the importance of aircraft performance planning!
Demonstrate the aircraft’s limited performance at reduced power to simulate the effect of temperature and pressure altitude.
Read and discuss

60. Full can be a beautiful thing!
But, when it comes to loading an airplane ……..
Continue
Full can exceed the weight and/or CG limits!

61. Weight can be a limitation. depending on runway length,
Weight can be a limitation depending on runway length, temperature, runway condition, and density altitude.
What to do?
Less fuel? Maybe, what’s the weather doing?
Fewer passengers? Could you leave someone behind?
Different runway? Perhaps the opposite direction?
Wait until the temperature decreases? Can you spare the time it takes to stay alive?
Discussion

62. Does the weight of whatever you put into the aircraft remain constant?
What happens when you bank for a turn ……….
and maintain your altitude ………………………
then increase your bank angle to 45 ….. 60 degrees ?
In which Category was your airplane Certificated, how many Gs are legal?
100 pounds at 3 Gs becomes 300 pounds ……. Is that a limitation? How about bags and cargo?
Discussion

63. After you have convinced your students that you can’t always fill every space in the aircraft, fill the tanks, and not exceed several of its operational limitations …………
Remind them that the Certificated limits are based on the performance of a new aircraft, at the exact weight, at a density altitude equal to sea level and standard temperature, demonstrated by …...
Discuss

64. Make sure your students know that the tables and calculations available in the Pilots Operating Handbook are based on pressure/density altitude.
The International Standards Association (ISA) has defined a Standard Atmosphere as:
Sea Level Barometric Pressure of inches of Mercury (in. Hg)
Sea Level Temperature of 15° Celsius (15° C or 59° F)
Relative humidity of 0 %
Standard temperature lapse rate of 2° C per 1000 feet altitude
Standard pressure lapse rate of 1 in. Hg per 1000 feet altitude
A standard decrease in density as altitude increases
Read through discuss as necessary

65. nonstandard temperature.
Pressure Altitude adjusts for pressure difference between your air and standard atmosphere. The question is “What would your altimeter read if you were in a standard atmosphere at your current actual altitude?” This altitude is called PRESSURE ALTITUDE.
Density Altitude uses
Pressure Altitude as a
basis, and adds in a
correction factor for
nonstandard temperature.
Read and continue

66. Even when you take care of all the other details, if you haven’t considered C of G …..
You may become a
TEST
PILOT!
Discuss the possibility of unsatisfactory or unsafe handling characteristics

67. What should you expect if …
the airplane is tail heavy, even when you are within CG limits or,
the airplane is nose heavy;
Flight Control effectiveness?
During takeoff?
During Landing?
During a Stall?
During Spin Recovery?
Encourage discussion

68. Any limitations to consider before Landing?
Continue

69. Pilot skills, aircraft limits, and the runway?
Continue

70. A little wind, a little too fast, no margin for error!
Does this happen? Yes, all the time. Combination of an airplane’s limitations not recognized by a pilot with limited experience.

71. Again,
Teach your students to consider options prior to takeoff, operations during flight, and landing.
Teach them to consider the limitations of the aircraft and their own limitations based on their knowledge and experience.
Stress the importance of having a thought process for all aspects of aviation

72. The airplane couldn’t do it ……… do you remember why?
Continue

73. The aircraft’s performance capability, the airspeed, and altitude from which the maneuver was initiated combined did not allow the pilot to
recover from the
maneuver.
Same thing here,
physics will
interrupt
flight!
Other examples you can think of?

74. Questions? Comments? Ideas? Quiz time ~
Module #6, Core Topic #12
Useful sources for more information:
Advisory Circular – AC-61-67C
Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook – FAA-H a
Questions?
Comments?
Ideas?
Quiz time ~
Sum it up by all means add your own thoughts and experiences and answer questions

75. 6. Baggage weighing 90 pounds is placed in a normal category airplane’s baggage compartment which is placarded at 100 pounds. If this airplane is subjected to a positive load factor of 3.5 Gs, the total load of the baggage would be ………
a. 315 pounds and would be excessive.
b. 315 pounds and would not be excessive.
c. 350 pounds and would be excessive.
d. 350 pounds and would not be excessive.

76. 7. The performance tables of an aircraft for takeoff and climb are based on
a. Pressure/density altitude
b. Cabin altitude
c. True altitude
d. Indicated altitude
8. Aircraft designed to withstand load limits up to 4.4G’s are labeled “normal or utility category aircraft??

77. 10. What is definition of the Empty weight?
9. What is the definition of Maximum weight?
10. What is definition of the Empty weight?
Answers follow …………………
Check that everyone is finished. Tell them to self correct to 100% they must have at least 70% before self correcting

78. 6. Baggage weighing 90 pounds is placed in a normal category airplane’s baggage compartment which is placarded at 100 pounds. If this airplane is subjected to a positive load factor of 3.5 Gs, the total load of the baggage would be ………
a. 315 pounds and would be excessive.
b. 315 pounds and would not be excessive.
c. 350 pounds and would be excessive.
d. 350 pounds and would not be excessive.
b. 315 pounds, not excessive Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

79. 7. The performance tables of an aircraft for takeoff and climb are based on
a. Pressure/density altitude
b. Cabin altitude
c. True altitude
d. Indicated altitude
Pressure/density altitude - Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.
8. Aircraft designed to withstand load limits up to 4.4G’s are labeled “normal or utility category aircraft??
“Utility” Category aircraft - Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.

80. 9. What is the definition of Maximum weight?
The maximum authorized weight of the aircraft and all of its equipment as specified in the Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) for the aircraft.
Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook, p. 1-1
10. What is definition of the Empty weight?
The weight of the airframe, engines, and all items of operating equipment that are permanently installed in the aircraft.
Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook.

81. Be sure to have your attendance record validated!
This Completes
CFI Workshop Module #6
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