1. Chapter 17: Organizations Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents – Munindar P. Singh and Michael N. Huhns, Wiley, 2005

2. Chapter 172Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Highlights of this Chapter Contracts Spheres of Commitment Policies Negotiation

3. Chapter 173Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Why Organizations? Computational representation inspired by human organizations Map to business partners providing or using services Promote coherence in interactions Offer a conceptually natural, high-level basis for understanding and designing service interactions

4. Chapter 174Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Organizations Organizations nest, though usually not as trees All organizations are agents Some agents are organizations Organizations help overcome limitations of individuals in Reasoning Capabilities Perception Lifetime, persistence

5. Chapter 175Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Three Kinds of Organizations Concrete (instantiated): agents playing roles Configured, run-time concept Abstract (templates): roles and relationships among roles Design-time concept Institutions: part abstract and part concrete Run-time concept, but the membership can change Example: eBay Buyers and sellers can change But eBay itself is a fixed participant

6. Chapter 176Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Legal Abstractions Contracts Directed obligations Hohfeldian concepts Compliance

7. Chapter 177Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Contracts as Service Agreements Contracts structure interactions (i.e., service engagements) among autonomous parties People and corporations Governmental agencies Compare with contracts in programming Each needs a computational representation Key questions: how to create, modify, perform, or monitor contracts

8. Chapter 178Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Motivation for Contracts Provide a basis for service agreements Crucial in open environments Emphasize public behavior: observable by others Constrain behavior: limit autonomy Mostly disregard internal implementations, thus supporting heterogeneity May expose some implementation

9. Chapter 179Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Legal Concepts Inherently multiagent: about interactions among autonomous parties Directed obligations One party being obliged to another party Multiagent flavor Contrast with traditional deontic logic Zero-agent: it is obligatory that … One-agent: you are obliged to do …

10. Chapter 1710Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Rights The rights or claims a party has on another party Not the right (ethical) thing to do The claims of one party are the duties of another: claim is a correlate of duty

11. Chapter 1711Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Hohfeldian Concepts: 1 The term right is used ambiguously Sixteen concepts distinguish the main situations: Four main concepts Their correlates Their negations Their negations’ correlates

12. Chapter 1712Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Hohfeldian Concepts: 2 Claim-duty: as above Privilege-exposure: freedom from the claims of another agent Power-liability: when an agent can change the claim-duty relationship of another agent Immunity-disability: freedom from the power of another agent

13. Chapter 1713Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Commitments A commitment Involves three parties: a debtor commits to a creditor within an organizational context Is scoped by its (organizational) context May be manipulated, subject to additional commitments Is public (unlike beliefs) Commitments provide Flexible interactions, thus promoting coherence A basis for judging compliance

14. Chapter 1714Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Manipulating Commitments Operations on commitments: Create Discharge (satisfy) Cancel Release (eliminate) Delegate (change debtor) Assign (change creditor) Metacommitments constrain the manipulation of commitments

15. Chapter 1715Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Commitments for Contracts A contract is a set of related commitments Provides a notional context to the commitments Applies between specified parties, in a context (e.g., UCC, real-estate, Internet commerce) In contrast to commitments, other approaches: Single-agent focused, e.g., deontic logic Don’t handle organizational aspects of contracts Don’t accommodate manipulation of contracts

16. Chapter 1716Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns SoCom: Sphere of Commitment A computational abstraction based on organizations An institution with additional features Involves roles (abstract) or agents (concrete) A witness for the commitment Trusted party to decide satisfaction or violation A locus for testing compliance and enforcing corrections (e.g., compensation)

17. - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns SoComs and Structure A SoCom inherits policies from surrounding (contextual) SoCom E.g., UCC applies to commercial interactions Inherited policies can conflict because of Nonunique nesting When agents play multiple roles

18. Chapter 1718Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Virtual Enterprises (VE) A VE offers commitments beyond those of its members to support business atomicity Sellers come together with a new proxy agent called VE Example of VE agent commitments: Entertain order updates Notify on change of order Price guarantee Delivery date guarantee

19. Chapter 1719Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns A Selling VE (Composition Example)

20. Chapter 1720Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Teams Tightly knit organizations Goals shared by all team members Commitments to help team members Commitments to adopt additional roles and offer capabilities on behalf of a disabled member

21. Chapter 1721Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Teamwork When a team carries out some complex activity Negotiating what to do Monitoring actions jointly Supporting each other Repairing plans

22. Chapter 1722Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Negotiation Negotiation is central to adaptive, cooperative behavior Negotiation involves a small set of agents Actions are propose, counterpropose, support, accept, reject, dismiss, retract Negotiation requires a common language and common framework (an abstraction of the problem and its solution)

23. Chapter 1723Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Negotiation Mechanism Attributes Efficiency Stability Simplicity Distribution Symmetry E.g., sharing book purchases, with cost decided by coin flip

24. Chapter 1724Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Negotiation among Utility-Based Agents Problem: How to design the rules of an environment so that agents interact productively and fairly, e.g., Vickrey’s Mechanism: lowest bidder wins, but gets paid second lowest bid This motivates each bidder to bid its true valuation

25. Chapter 1725Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Negotiation A deal is a joint plan between two agents that would satisfy their goals The utility of a deal for an agent is the amount he is willing to pay minus the cost to him of the deal The negotiation set is the set of all deals that have a positive utility for every agent. The possible situations for interaction are Conflict: the negotiation set is empty Compromise: agents prefer to be alone, but will agree to a negotiated deal Cooperative: all deals in the negotiation set are preferred by both agents over achieving their goals alone

26. Chapter 1726Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Negotiation Mechanism The agents follow a Unified Negotiation Protocol, which applies to any situation. In this protocol, The agents negotiate on mixed-joint plans, i.e., plans that bring the world to a new state that is better for both agents If there is a conflict, they “flip a coin” to decide which agent gets to satisfy his goal

27. Chapter 1727Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Problem Domain Hierarchy Worth-Oriented Domains State-Oriented Domains Task-Oriented Domains

28. Chapter 1728Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Task-Oriented Domains: 1 A TOD is a tuple, where T is the set of tasks, A is the set of agents, and c(X) is a monotonic function for the cost of executing the set of tasks X Examples Deliveries: c(X) = length of minimal path that visits X Postmen: c(X) = length of minimal path plus return Databases: c(X) = minimal number of needed DB ops

29. Chapter 1729Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Task-Oriented Domains: 2 A deal is a redistribution of tasks Utility of deal d for agent k is U k (d) = c(T k ) - c(d k ) The conflict deal, D, is no deal A deal d is individual rational if d>D Deal d dominates d’ if d is better for at least one agent and not worse for the rest Deal d is Pareto optimal if there is no d’>d The set of all deals that are individual rational and Pareto optimal is the negotiation set, NS

30. Chapter 1730Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Monotonic Concession Protocol Each agent proposes a deal If one agent matches or exceeds what the other demands, the negotiation ends Else, the agents propose the same or more (concede) If no agent concedes, the negotiation ends with the conflict deal This protocol is simple, symmetric, distributed, and guaranteed to end in a finite number of steps in any TOD. What strategy should an agent adopt?

31. Chapter 1731Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Zeuthen Strategy Offer deal that is best among all deals in NS Calculate risks of self and opponent R1=(utility A1 loses by accepting A2’s offer) (utility A1 loses by causing a conflict) If risk is smaller than opponent, offer minimal sufficient concession (a sufficient concession makes opponent’s risk less than yours); else offer original deal If both use this strategy, they will agree on deal that maximizes the product of their utilities (Pareto optimal) The strategy is not stable (when both should concede on last step, but it’s sufficient for only one to concede, then one can benefit by dropping strategy)

32. Chapter 1732Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Deception-Free Protocols Zeuthen strategy requires full knowledge of Tasks Protocol Strategies Commitments Hidden tasks Phantom tasks Decoy tasks P.O. A1 (hidden) A1A2

33. Chapter 1733Service-Oriented Computing: Semantics, Processes, Agents - Munindar Singh and Michael Huhns Chapter 17 Summary Organizations are a natural metaphor for understanding and designing systems of services Organizations provide a basis for realizing coherent interactions Legal and contractual concepts such as commitments Teamwork Understanding and formalizing negotiation