1. Industrial Accounting Information and the Rise of Big Business

2. Purpose and Approach Why and how did America grow from a rural backwater (no banks, no money to speak of, little manufacturing) into an industrial giant capable of leading the world in innovation and manufacturing prowess? Approach is primarily chronological and by industry, with a focus on specific individuals and companies.

3. Overview 1 Background from colonies to revolution and Constitution. America in 1800 Financing, transportation, and property rights Textiles Standardized part and the role of armaments Railroads—the Big Four Railroad sophistication

4. Overview 2 Carnegie and steel Great merger movement & really big business Scientific management Du Pont General Motors America in 1950

5. The Colonies to Constitution Jamestown—how to make a buck for investors Colonial incentives, property rights, politics Mercantile regulations & enforcement; result: revolution Economic problems in the 1780s: depression, banking, regional differences Constitution and new government

6. America in 1800 The role of the federal government: Washington to Jefferson The Hamiltonian model Agriculture Banking and finance Transportation Manufacturing

7. Textiles Textiles and the industrial revolution Samuel Slater and Almy, Brown and Slater Lobbying and tariffs New England competition Lyman Mills Textile accounting

8. Standardization and Armaments Eli Whitney’s rifle contract and standardization—following French models, standardized the firing mechanism Springfield Armory—the most complete factory process in early 19 th century Colonel Russell Lee and improved accounting, the most sophisticated in America before 1840

9. Railroads—the Big Four From steamships to railroads Funding big infrastructure projects and financial markets Baltimore and Ohio (B&O) Erie Railroad New York Central Pennsylvania (Pennsy) Early financial statements

10. Railroad Sophistication Major George Whistler—lines of responsibility B&O manual on departmental services Daniel McCallum, Erie, management system J. Edgar Thomson, Pennsy—decentralized management, strategic planning, uniform set of accounts, operating ratio to standardize performance Albert Fink, Louisville & Nashville—ton mile as standardized measurement of performance

11. Railroad Consolidation Movement from small railroads to giant consolidations, based on legal changes, economies and efficiencies of moving people and goods long distances, improving accounting and management Big 4, including Cornelius Vanderbilt at New York Central and attempt to raid the Erie Consolidators, speculators and professional managers Wall Street “Money Trust” consolidates most railroads into major lines

12. Railroad Regulation State charters required for most railroads, vast expenditures for infrastructure, critical component for economic growth Considerable corruption, speculation and outright fraud (e.g., Credit Mobilier) State “experiments” in regulation: Massachusetts, New York, etc. Problems of interstate commerce; federal regulation begins with the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 (with periodic amendments)

13. Andrew Carnegie and Big Steel Trained at Pennsy under Thomas Scott—how to run a business profitably using sophisticated accounting Low cost producer based on most recent technology (beginning with Bessemer process), professional managers and accounting expertise Focus on cost data detailing labor and materials used per ton of product: voucher system, monthly cost reports, price products based on full capacity production Carnegie sold out to J.P. Morgan who formed U.S. Steel—part of the big business merger movement around the start of the 20 th century

14. Scientific Management Management accounting innovations came from engineers in the scientific management movement of Frederick Taylor and others Standard costs were calculated as efficiency measures, the best way to use materials and labor and minimize waste; actual costs were compared to standard as performance measures

15. Du Pont Pierre Du Pont and cousins reorganized the gunpowder company, developing an organization structure focused on best practices in management and accounting Du Pont expanded and became the low-cost producer of explosives. Progress was made in cost accounting, especially in evaluating overhead costs, fixed asset accounting, forecasting of future costs and pricing, long-range planning using return on investment (ROI)

16. General Motors William Durant vs. Henry Ford Du Pont investment and management Alfred Sloan and Donaldson Brown “Centralized control with decentralized responsibility” ROI, flexible budgeting with standardized price and volume GM under Sloan became the model for big industrials in the mid-20 th century

17. Conclusions U.S. manufacturing was the world colossus in the 1950s, based on the coordination of accounting and management This success was based on a century-and-a-half process of entrepreneurs and professional managers, despite massive corruption and fraud Problems would develop in the second half of the 20 th century, before American industry would recover much of its global power