1. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 by Pearson Education. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Further reproduction is prohibited without written permission from the publisher. This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; Any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Social Psychology www.ablongman.com/lefton9e

2. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 What is Social Psychology? Social Psychology is the science of how people are affected by the real or imagined thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of others and by the social situation In other words, how we affect and are affected by others

3. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 What is the Social Self? The Self in Social Psychology –Self-awareness required to form a self- concept – our perceptions of our self –Self-esteem: Feelings about the self –Self-presentation: The behavioral aspect of the self

4. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 ATTRIBUTION THEORY Looks to explain how we perceive the “causes” of events

5. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Internal Vs. External Attributions Internal Attributions – attributing the cause to personality –“That driver just cut me off. What a jerk!” External Attributions – attributing the cause to the situation or external factors –“That driver just cut me off. She must be distracted.”

6. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Errors in Attribution –Self-Serving Bias (helps us maintain our self-esteem) “ I passed the psychology test because I’m smart. I failed the math test because it was unfair.” –Fundamental Attribution Error – * underestimating situational/external factors and overestimating personality/dispostional factors “He yelled at his mother because he’s mean.” Not because he’s having a bad day, she said something rude, etc.

7. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Thinking About Self and Others Errors in Attribution –Lead to blaming others inappropriately –Also lead to failure to accept responsibility for our own behavior –Do not exist equally in all cultures

8. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 How Are Attitudes Related to Behavior? Attitudes are –Patterns of evaluative beliefs –About ideas, objects, other people –Based on past experiences –Play a role in one’s behavior –Usually involve judgments of good or bad –Usually long-lasting, but may be changed

9. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 How Are Attitudes Related to Behavior? Dimensions of Attitudes 1. Cognitive dimension 2. Emotional dimension 3. Behavioral dimension

10. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Dimensions of Attitudes We are sometimes unaware of all dimensions of our attitudes –Explicit attitudes are those we are aware of –Implicit attitudes are those we are unaware of Unconscious and uncontrollable Automatically activated Affect behavior E.g., implicit racial attitudes

11. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 How Are Attitudes Related to Behavior? Does Behavior Determine Attitudes? –Common-sense view Attitudes shape behavior Behavior follows from attitudes –Bem’s Self-Perception Theory We observe and interpret our own behavior Then attitudes are formed

12. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Does Behavior Determine Attitudes? Cognitive Dissonance Theory –When attitudes conflict with each other or when attitudes conflict with behavior, a state of discomfort arises Cognitive dissonance –People are motivated to reduce cognitive dissonance –By changing attitude –By changing behavior

13. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 How Are Attitudes Related to Behavior? How Does Attitude Change Occur? 1. Attitude Change Through Persuasion a. Source of the persuasive message (Who?) b. Message (What?) –Argument quality –Fear appeals –Repetition – THE MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT c. Medium through which message is communicated (How?) d. Audience characteristics

14. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 How Do People Relate to Each Other? Attraction and Relationship Formation 1. Proximity 2. Physical Attractiveness 3. Similarity 4. Complementarity

15. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Attraction and Relationship Formation Friendships –Concept develops in preschool –Gender differences emerge early Definitions of Love –Three components (Sternberg, 1986) –Intimacy –Commitment –Passion –Companionate love –Consummate love

16. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Attraction and Relationship Formation Intimate and Love Relationships –Intimacy Not present in all friendships or romantic relationships Related to self-disclosure

17. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 How Do People Relate to Each Other? Aggression and Violence –Aggression is any behavior intended to harm another person or thing Physical Verbal Emotional

18. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Aggression and Violence Is Aggression Innate? –The potential to behave aggressively may be innate, but whether people behave aggressively or not depends on learned inhibitory responses and social context

19. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Aggression and Violence Does Frustration Cause Aggression? –Frustration–aggression hypothesis –More likely, frustration creates a readiness for aggression (Berkowitz, 1964)

20. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Aggression and Violence Do People Learn How to Be Aggressive? –Social learning theory –Violence in the media (MODELING) Effects may be long-lasting Effects on immediate behavior More exposure, more aggression Less likely to help real-life victims of violence Desensitizes to violence

21. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Aggression and Violence Can Aggression Be Controlled? –Punishment is not very successful –Some violence prevention programs are successful Help children interpret others’ behaviors as less hostile Develop interpersonal skills

22. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 How Do People Relate to Each Other? Prosocial Behavior – any behavior that benefits others Altruisim: Helping Without Rewards

23. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Prosocial Behavior The Bystander Effect –Witnesses’ unwillingness to help during an event Increases when there are more witnesses –Latane and Darley (1970) Is it an emergency? Use other witnesses’ behavior as cues Diffusion of responsibility Even the imagined presence of others decreases the likelihood of helping

24. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 The Bystander Effect When are bystanders more likely to offer help? –When alone –When they feel competent to help –When they know the victim

25. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Stereotypes Fixed, simplified ideas about the attributes of a specific group Mental shortcuts to categorize objects and people Often ignores individual differences

26. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Stereotypes Illusory Correlations help maintain stereotypes –An incorrect connection between two events that seem to be related Often due to memory distortions Stereotype threat –Occurs when in a situation that one fears will confirm a stereotype about one’s group –Stereotype threat alone can lead to worsened performance

27. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Prejudice and Discrimination –Prejudice is a negative evaluation of a group –Discrimination is behavioral

28. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Prejudice and Discrimination Explanations for prejudice –Authoritarian personality Characteristic of prejudiced people See the world as good or bad Are prejudiced against those they blame for their failures

29. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Prejudice and Discrimination Explanations for prejudice –Realistic conflict theory Prejudice stems from competition for scarce resources Allport Competition Arousal Erroneous Generalizations Prejudice

30. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Prejudice and Discrimination Explanations for prejudice –Social Learning Theory Children learn to be prejudiced

31. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Prejudice and Discrimination Overt prejudice and discrimination less common now Today, psychologists study more subtle, automatic prejudice –Implicit attitudes Measures reaction times Faster reaction times indicate stronger associations between concepts

32. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Prejudice and Discrimination Modern Racism –Prejudice and discrimination expressed in subtle ways Individuals may possess positive explicit attitudes and negative implicit attitudes Sexism –Prejudice based on gender