1. Chapter 2: Conducting Research
Psychology is an experimental science. Theories of behavior must be supported by evidence.

2. 5 Steps of Scientific Research
Form a Question
Form a Hypothesis
Test the Hypothesis
Analyze the Results of the Test
Draw Conclusions

3. Form a Question Do people learn by observing others?
Do people learn better in small groups or alone?
Do clients prefer counselor self-disclosure?
Do older children (birth order) do better in school?
Are the babies of the family spoiled?
QUESTION MUST BE MEASUREABLE!
Are athletes nicer, prettier? (How do you measure this?)

4. Form a Hypothesis Make an educated guess
A child who watches Power Rangers will be more aggressive
A child who plays Medal of Honor will most likely go into the military
Students who sit in the front of the class get better grades
Kids will buy the candy closest to them at the camp store window
Grandpa’s and Grandma’s drive slower

5. Test the Hypothesis
CAREFULLY EXAMINE THE BEHAVIOR IN A NATURAL OR CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT
Decide what information is needed to test the hypothesis (What is the best way to gather information?)
If you want to see if fat people eat bad foods, survey their carts at the grocery store before checkout
If you want to see if skinny people eat slower, observe them in a café
Survey questions DO NOT always work…people often tell you what they think you want to hear

6. Test the Hypothesis Continued
GATHER THE INFORMATION: This could take weeks, months, or even YEARS
Conduct a survey
Take a survey
Observations

7. Analyze the Results of the Test
SUMMARIZE THE DATA STATISTICALLY
Look for patterns and relationships in the data
Use complex statistical tests to see if results are better than chance

8. Draw Conclusions DID THE OBSERVATIONS SUPPORT THE HYPOTHESIS?
Were there predicted results?
Were there unpredicted results?
Do you have any predictions for future results?
How can you adjust or refine the original hypothesis?

9. Replication
For findings to be confirmed, they must be REPLICATED with a different sample of subjects or else results may be a random occurrence.
If you repeat your findings with different people (gender, socioeconomic status, age, education, geographic region) and get similar results, your findings are more robust.

10. New Questions
Perhaps your research methods will lead you to formulate new hypothesis tests, methods of information gathering, and results for further discussion.

11. Research Methods: Selecting Samples
Important to carefully consider what group of people you will examine (ex: if you are interested in behaviors in the parking lot…don’t ask freshmen)
To accurately predict an outcome, your sample must be representative of the target population.

12. Selecting Samples: Two Ways
Random Sample
Individuals are selected by chance from the target population
Everyone has an equal chance of being chosen
If it is big enough, it will accurately represent the entire target population
Stratified Sample
Subgroups in target population are represented proportionally
U.S. by race
74% non-Hispanic white
10% Eskimo / Native Americans
3% Asian
10% Hispanic
12% African American
U.S. by sex, by grade, by age, by race…you can’t always account for all these
The bigger your sample, the more likely it will be stratified

13. Selecting Samples
Generalizing Results: researchers are careful not to generalize their findings to groups not represented in their sample
Can be bias because of gender, race, geographic location, socioeconomic status or volunteer bias
People who volunteer to participate in research studies often differ from people who do not
More willing to disclose personal information
More interested in research
More spare time
People who complete magazine studies
Read magazines
Have time to fill out the surveys
Different leisure preferences

14. Survey Method Gathering information by asking people directly
Through a questionnaire
Through interviews in person or over the phone or
Advantages
Questionnaire – people can be more anonymous
Interviews – more likely to do it and not throw it away
Issues of confidentiality or honesty in all methods
People will sometimes say what they think you want to hear
People may not always tell the truth
People are not always comfortable sharing their thoughts

15. Methods of Observation
Learn a lot from watching people
Psychologists use careful methods of observation to investigate behavior

16. Testing Method
Psychologists use tests (I.Q. tests, personality tests, aptitude tests, vocational tests, etc.)
Give us information about the persons (learning ability, temperament, character, special skills, career interests, etc.)

17. Case Study Method
In depth investigation of an individual or small group
Use what they learn to generalize to a larger population
EX: Genie at 20 months was locked in a small room by her dad until 13. Mom fed her, Dad beat her, no one spoke to her. She herself did not say a word. She eventually learned language, but not as well as most people. Case study conclusion: the critical period for language development is between 20 months and 13 years.
Problems with case studies:
Difficult to REPLICATE
Often biased with interview format
People don’t always remember
Some people distort the past
Researchers subtly bias respondents to answer how they want to hear

18. Longitudinal Method
Looks at how people change over time (often years or decades)
Information collected at intervals
Tend to take long, be expensive, risky – no guarantee that people will want to continue to participate

19. Cross-Sectional Method
Includes and compares different people of different ages
Less reliable than longitudinal
Cannot be certain that age alone is responsible for differences in behavior

20. Naturalistic Observation
Observe people in actual environment
Homes
Schools
Offices
restaurants
Do not interfere with the organism while observing
EX: people’s eating habits, grocery store carts, fast-slow chewers

21. Laboratory Observation Method
Observe people and animals in a laboratory setting (more often animals)
Can sometimes control variables in a lab setting (does light or noise influence behavior?)
TV Violence: observe kids’ behavior after watching a violent TV show

22. Analyzing Observations
Correlations
How closely is one thing related to another?
The stronger the correlation, the more likely they are to be related
Ex: Tall = basketball player
EX: Talk = teacher

23. Correlations Positive Correlation: as one goes up, so does the other
EX: Education and salary; height and basketball player; money and happiness (?)
Negative Correlation: as one goes up the other goes down
EX: stress and health; age and height; involvement in extracurricular activities and grades (?)

24. Correlations
Correlations are limited. They describe the relationship but they do not reveal cause and effect. One thing does not necessarily cause the other.

25. Experimental Method Used to establish cause and effect in research.
One group of subjects gets treatment (experimental group)
One group of subjects does not get treatment (control group)
Randomly assign subjects to each group. Assume other differencs balance out with randomization
Behavior is observed or measured
All other conditions are held constant
If different – cause = treatment

26. Variables
Independent Variable: factor that researchers manipulate so that they can determine its effect
Dependent Variable: behavior being measured or thought to be influenced by independent variable
Example: Hypothesis: Children watching violent TV are more likely to be violent
Independent Variables
Power Rangers TV show, Barney TV show (Experimental Groups)
No TV show (control group)
Dependent Variable: behavior after watching the show

27. Variables
EX: Hypothesis: Review helps students perform better on tests
Class 1 gets a review game before a test
Class 2 does not get a review game before the test
Independent variable = review game
Dependent Variable = test scores

28. Placebo Effect
Substance or treatment that has no effect apart from a person’s belief in it
Doctors find this to be true with certain hypochondria patients and medication

29. Blind Studies
Single Blind Study: participants unaware of whether they are receiving treatment or a placebo
Double Blind Study: participants and researchers are unaware of who is in which group. Researchers remain less bias.

30. Experimental Method
Advantages: researchers are able to manipulate variables to determine cause and effect. Laboratory setting enables researchers to monitor and record all stages of the experiment.
Disadvantages: conditions created in the lab may not accurately reflect the conditions of real life. Experiments may be subject to volunteer bias, researcher bias and the placebo effect.

31. Ethical Issues
Ethics: standards for proper and responsible behavior. Psychologists promote dignity of the individual, foster human welfare, maintain scientific integrity.
Psychological research should NOT be harmful (consider the experimentation in Nazi concentration camps)
Animal experimentation: need to present all findings (controversial)

32. Confidentiality and Informed Consent
Information is private (subjects more likely to disclose true information and feelings)
People agree to participate in a research study after they know what its about and choose to participate
Deception can only take place if the potential benefits outweigh the potential harm
When the participants receive an explanation of the study after it occurred.