1. Colonial Law, Nationalist Reform, and Social Ecology: “The Thrifty Peasant”

2. Genesis of the “thrifty peasant” Colonial discourse classifies certain groups as more capable of agrarian success than others –Stems from the grafting of race theory on ideas about caste and tribes –Jats in north, patels in west, offered favorable treatment under new schemes in 1920s and1930s Nationalist leaders create an alternate version of this to connect with the grass roots –Village India as a repository of “tradition” –Attempt to create links with Kisan Sabha movement

3. Interactions with Colonial Law In response to the crisis of rural debt, land ownership in “bread-basket” states like Punjab reserved for certain castes (Jats, Arains) Land watered by new irrigation projects are settled only from those groups Also becomes the basis for disparate treatment towards pastoral groups, forest tribes—creates local rivalries over resources The “Thrifty Peasant” also becomes by 1920s a way of arguing that colonial rule had benefited Indian peasants

4. Punjab Canals

5. The “Thrifty” and “Stout” farmer Some castes are entrepreneurial, others wasteful—nomadic groups stigmatized as “criminal” State adopts paternal measures to protect these groups, reform and punish others Preferential hiring for army and police

6. Interactions with Nationalist thought Figures like Gandhi and Nehru identify the Indian peasant as the symbol of the nation –See rural areas as places uncorrupted by western ideas and lifestyles –Simple life style and “thrifty-ness” of peasants at the heart of Gandhian ideas about an idealized Indian culture Focus on the oppression of colonial rule at the village level, share (co-opt?) kisan sabha agendas –High taxes, rural indebtedness –Forced labor and growing landlessness –Poverty and famine Tensions within this dialogue—pressures of creating a national movement from groups with opposed interests—landlords v. peasants

8. Kisan Sabhas and peasant politics By the inter-war years variations of the Kisan Sabha mobilization sweep through S. Asia –Criticize nationalists for romanticizing poverty –Also for connections with zamindars/landlords Nationalist parties such as the Congress and Muslim League have an uneasy relationship with such groups Only in Bengal does a fruitful collaboration between peasant groups and urban politicians emerge in the Krishka Praja –Tensions between largely Muslim peasantry and large group of Hindu landlords

10. Ecological dimensions of Rural Politics At the heart of these tensions are factors related to demography and the distribution of resources –Kisan Sabhas point to dwindling farm size By 1921 half the population is living in 1/6 th of the land—Bengal population density in some areas exceeds 1000/sq km –In areas such as Rajasthan, density is less, but land is also less productive –Population spilling into marginal areas –Tax rates do not differentiate between these areas

11. Ecological issues Birth rates remain steady but death rates climb after WWI—growth rates slows for first time to 1.2% –War casualties ½ million –Plague-6.5 million –Malaria largest killer, also famine –Life expectancy in post-war period dips to 32 Causes of famine both demographic and man made –Govt. rationing, diversion of food crops to Europe –New food crops grown in areas not suited to micro conditions –“Relief” programs based on labor exchange –Do not extend into remote areas

12. Impact on Politics Growing pressure on nationalists to address these issues Peasants use the image of the “thrifty peasant” to highlight disparities b/w castes and classes Increased competition for scarce resources plays out in local level violence—often takes on a religious or caste aspect Pattern of protest strongest among middle-level castes in rural areas—rarely includes untouchables, landless peasants, pastoral nomads These tensions are going to carry on into the post-1947 period.

13. Debates over Solutions Issue of growing landlessness—discussion of a land ownership ceiling, abolishment of zamindari –Eventually favors middle-caste groups Pressure to dissolve state control over common grazing grounds, forests, pasture Younger nationalists like Nehru favor extension of irrigation, mechanization of farming, subsidies to farmer –Tensions with Gandhian opposition to mechanization –Problems with dangers of irrigation begin to surface –Increased focus on dwindling crop yields