1. Chapter 4- Toward a New World 4.1- Europe in the Middle Ages
The New Agriculture
The Growth of Cities
The Papal Monarchy
New Religious Orders
Popular Religion in the High Middle Ages
The Rise of Universities
Architecture
The Late Middle Ages

2. The New Agriculture
Between 1000 and 1300, the number of people in Europe almost doubled, increasing from 38 million to 74 million
Increased stability and peace enabled food production to rise dramatically
A change in climate improved growing conditions
More land was cleared for cultivation.

3. The New Agriculture Technological changes aided farming
Water and wind power began to do jobs once done by humans and animals
Iron was used to make the carruca, a plow that could turn over heavy soil
The shift from a two-field to a three-field system of crop rotation increased crop yields
This ensured a summer and fall harvest while allowing a third of the land to be replenished

4. The New Agriculture
The manorial system consisted of an agricultural estate (a manor) run by a lord and worked by peasants
The land-holding nobles (lords and vassals) depended on free peasants and serfs to provide economic support by working the land so that they (the nobles) could pursue the arts of war

5. The New Agriculture
Free peasants continued to exist, but by 800, probably 60 percent of the people of western Europe were serfs
Serfs were peasants legally bound to the land
they had to provide labor services, pay rents, and be subject to the lord’s control
Serfs also grew food for themselves.

6. The New Agriculture
Peasant cottages had wood frames surrounded by sticks, with the spaces between sticks filled with straw and rubble and plastered over with clay.
Roofs were thatched.

7. The New Agriculture Peasant women had a difficult and important role
They worked in the fields and bore children
They were also responsible for managing the household

8. The New Agriculture Peasant activities were determined by the seasons
August and September required a good harvest of grains for making bread, which was crucial for winter survival
In October, peasants worked the ground for the planting of winter crops
Animals were slaughtered in November and the meat was preserved with salt
In February and March, land was plowed for spring planting
Shearing and weeding were done in the summer months

9. The Revival of Trade
In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, a revival of trade and the associated growth of towns and cities changed the economic foundation of Europe from basically agricultural to a mix of agricultural and commercial
Italian cities took the lead
By the end of the twelfth century, goods were being regularly exchanged between Flanders and Italy

10. The Revival of Trade
As trade increased and the demand for gold and silver coins arose, a money economy developed.
Trading companies and banking firms were established
They managed the exchange and sale of goods.

11. The Revival of Trade
These new practices led to the rise of commercial capitalism–an economic system in which people invested in trade and goods to make a profit.
Some refer to this as the beginning of the Commercial Revolution

12. The Growth of Cities As trade revived, so did cities
Merchants began to settle in the old Roman cities
Artisans followed
They had the skills to make the items that merchants could sell

13. The Growth of Cities
New cities and towns were founded, especially in northern Europe
Typically a group of merchants built a settlement near a castle on a trade route, and the lord would offer protection
If the settlement prospered, walls were built to protect it
The merchants and artisans of these cities later came to be called burghers or bourgeoisie from the German word burg, which means “a walled enclosure.”

14. The Growth of Cities
Compared to either ancient or modern cities, medieval cities were small
A large trading city might have five thousand inhabitants
There were larger Italian cities–Venice, Florence, and Milan each had more than 80,000 inhabitants
Even the largest European cities, however, were small compared to Constantinople or Baghdad

15. The Growth of Cities
Medieval towns were surrounded by stone walls, which were expensive to build
Therefore, the space within was crowded
Streets were narrow, with the second and third story of buildings reaching out over the streets
Fire danger was great
Buildings were mostly wood, and candles and wood fires were used for light and heat

16. The Growth of Cities Medieval cities were not pleasant
They were dirty and smelled from human and animal waste
Wood fires created air pollution
Cities and towns became manufacturing centers
A variety of goods were manufactured in the houses: cloth, metalwork, shoes, and leather goods

17. The Growth of Cities
Beginning in the twelfth century, craftspeople organized themselves into guilds, or business associations.
They played a leading role in urban economic life
By the thirteenth century, almost every craft had a guild, as did some kinds of merchants

18. The Papal Monarchy
Papal control over the territory in central Italy known as the Papal States involved the popes in politics, often at the expense of their spiritual duties.
Increasingly, the Church became involved in the feudal system
Bishops and abbots held their offices as grants from nobles
Therefore, they were vassals with allegiance to a secular authority
They were even obliged to carry out military duties.

19. The Papal Monarchy
In the eleventh century, Pope Gregory VII claimed that the pope’s authority extended over all the Christian world (including rulers) and asserted the Church’s right to appoint clergy and run its affairs
In 1075, Pope Gregory issued a decree forbidding high-ranking clerics from receiving their offices from lay (secular) leaders
This action lessened the power of kings such as King Henry IV of Germany

20. The Papal Monarchy
The Church reached the height of its political power in the thirteenth century during the reign of Pope Innocent III, who believed he was the supreme judge of European affairs
He even ordered Philip Augustus to take back his wife after Philip had sought an annulment.

21. New Religious Orders
Religious enthusiasm seized Europe during the second half of the eleventh century and first half of the twelfth century
This led to a rise in the number of monasteries and also new monastic orders.

22. New Religious Orders
One of the most important new orders of the earlier Middle Ages was the Cistercian order founded by a group of dissatisfied Benedictine monks
Saint Bernard of Clairvaux embodied the new activist spiritual model of the Cistercians–taking religion to people outside the monastery

23. New Religious Orders Women were also active in the spiritual movements
Record numbers joined convents
Most were from the landed aristocracy, and intellectuals found convents a haven for their activities

24. New Religious Orders
In the thirteenth century, the Franciscan and Dominican religious orders emerged and had a strong impact on ordinary people
The Franciscans
founded by Saint Francis of Assisi, lived among the people preaching repentance and aiding the poor
The Dominicans
founded by a Spanish priest, Dominic de Guzmán, wanted to defend Church teachings against heresy

25. New Religious Orders
The Church created a court called the Inquisition, or Holy Office, in order to find and try heretics.

26. Popular Religion in the High Middle Ages
The sacraments (Christian rites) of the Catholic Church were a crucial part of ordinary people’s lives from birth to death
These rites included:
baptism
marriage
the Eucharist
were seen as a means for receiving God’s grace and salvation
The people depended on the clergy to administer these rights

27. Popular Religion in the High Middle Ages
Veneration of the saints was another important church practice
Saints were men and women who were considered especially holy and who had achieved a special position in heaven
Saints were able to ask for favors before the throne of God for people who prayed to them

28. Popular Religion in the High Middle Ages
Medieval Christians also believed in the spiritual benefits of a pilgrimage to a holy shrine, such as the Holy City of Jerusalem
On the continent during the High Middle Ages, two popular pilgrim centers were:
Rome
which contained the relics of Saints Peter and Paul)
the Spanish town of Santiago de Compostela
supposedly the site of the tomb of Saint James

29. The Rise of Universities
The university as we know it today, with faculty, students, and degrees, was a product of the High Middle Ages
Medieval universities were educational guilds, or corporations, that produced educated and trained individuals
The first European university was in Bologna, Italy
It attracted men who were administrators for kings and princes
Women did not attend universities

30. The Rise of Universities
In the second half of the twelfth century, some students and masters (teachers) from the first university in northern Europe–the University of Paris–left France and started their own university at Oxford, England
By 1500, Europe had 80 universities
Students began their studies with the traditional liberal arts curriculum, which included:
grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy

31. The Rise of Universities
Teachers used a lecture method–they would read from a basic text and then add their explanations
Students earned degrees by passing an oral exam given after a four- or six-year period of study
After completing the liberal arts curriculum, a student could continue to study, law, medicine, or theology

32. Architecture
An explosion of building, especially churches, occurred in the eleventh and twelfth centuries in medieval Europe
Cathedrals were built in the Romanesque style
They had barrel-vaulted roofs, which were extremely heavy and required massive pillars and walls
This left little room for windows, so Romanesque churches were dark inside

33. Architecture
A new style, called Gothic, appeared in the twelfth century and was perfected in the thirteenth
It remains one of the greatest artistic triumphs of the High Middle Ages
Two basic innovations made Gothic-style churches possible
One was replacing the barrel vault of Romanesque churches with a combination of ribbed vaults and pointed arches

34. Architecture
The other was the flying buttress, a heavy, arched support of stone built onto the outside of the walls
Flying buttresses made it possible to distribute the weight of the church’s vaulted ceiling outward and down, eliminating the heavy walls of Romanesque churches
The relatively thin walls could be filled with magnificent stained glass windows

35. The Late Middle Ages
The Middle Ages in Europe had reached a high point in the 1200s
European society in the 1300s and early 1400s (the Late Middle Ages) was challenged by disastrous forces
one of which was the Black Death–the most devastating natural disaster in European history
Bubonic plague was the most common form of the Black Death and was spread by black rats infested with fleas carrying a deadly bacterium

36. The Late Middle Ages
Many millions died of the plague between 1347 and 1351
The death of so many people in the fourteenth century had severe economic consequences–
trade declined
a shortage of workers caused a dramatic rise in the price of labor
The decline in the number of people lowered the demand for food, resulting in falling prices

37. The Late Middle Ages
Popes of the Roman Catholic Church reached the height of their power in the 1200s
In the 1300s, a series of problems led to a decline in the Church’s political and spiritual positions
Struggles with the king led a French pope to take up residence in Avignon in southern France in 1305, and the popes resided there until 1377.

38. The Late Middle Ages
The pope returned to Rome in 1377, but after his death, a group of Italian cardinals elected an Italian pope, while a group of French cardinals elected a French pope
Each line of popes denounced the other
This division was called the Great Schism
It lasted from 1378 to 1417 and divided Europe

39. The Late Middle Ages
Although the schism was finally ended in 1417, people’s faith in both the papacy and the Church were undermined, and the Church had lost much of its political and spiritual authority
The Late Middle Ages also saw war and political instability
The Hundred Years’ War between England and France lasted from 1337 to 1453
A peasant girl, Joan of Arc, helped the French armies to finally bring the war to an end

40. The Late Middle Ages
In the fifteenth century, rulers from France, England, and other European states attempted to reestablish the centralized power of monarchies
The monarchies of France, England, and Spain became known as the new monarchies

41. The Late Middle Ages
The Holy Roman Empire had not developed a strong monarchical authority
Germany had become a land of hundreds of independent states

42. The Late Middle Ages
Eastern European rulers found it difficult to centralize their states
Russia had been under Mongol domination since the thirteenth century
Gradually the princes of Moscow rose to power, and under the great prince Ivan III, a new Russian state was born