1. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING
Ideographic writing (c.3000 B.C.E.): Pictographs can stand for something more abstract (e.g., picture of son = “day”, “light”, or “heat”
Rebus writing (c.2100 B.C.E.): Using phonetic values suggested by pictographs to build new unrelated words (e.g., picture of sun = “son”)  Useful but still needed ~700 symbols (1 for each syllable) Narrow, highly specialized class of scribes rest of society heavily depends on
Phonetic alphabet (c.1000 B.C.E.): one symbol for each sound we make  Much simpler
Many more literate people  Lowers scribes’ status
Better record keeping Much bigger states & trade routes
Expands uses of writing to literature & history

2. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)

3. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth How do they keep track of them?

4. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods

5. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Impact on trade & number of tokens?

6. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers Who sometimes do what?

7. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens

8. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal

9. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens? merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal

10. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens? merchants in next city will see broken seal

11. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal

12. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have What do they do?

13. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens

14. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for?

16. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens

17. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING

18. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for doing what?
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING

19. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING

20. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING
Ideographic writing (c.3000 B.C.E.): Pictographs can stand for something more abstract (e.g., picture of son = “day”, “light”, or “heat”

21. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING
Ideographic writing (c.3000 B.C.E.): Pictographs can stand for something more abstract (e.g., picture of son = “day”, “light”, or “heat”

22. A chart showing the evolution of various words from clay tokens to ideographic writing.

23. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING
Ideographic writing (c.3000 B.C.E.): Pictographs can stand for something more abstract (e.g., picture of son = “day”, “light”, or “heat”
Rebus writing (c.2100 B.C.E.): Using phonetic values suggested by pictographs to build new unrelated words (e.g., picture of sun = “son”)  How many symbols would there be if you need one for each syllable?

24. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING
Ideographic writing (c.3000 B.C.E.): Pictographs can stand for something more abstract (e.g., picture of son = “day”, “light”, or “heat”
Rebus writing (c.2100 B.C.E.): Using phonetic values suggested by pictographs to build new unrelated words (e.g., picture of sun = “son”)  How many symbols would there be if you need one for each syllable?

25. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING
Ideographic writing (c.3000 B.C.E.): Pictographs can stand for something more abstract (e.g., picture of son = “day”, “light”, or “heat”
Rebus writing (c.2100 B.C.E.): Using phonetic values suggested by pictographs to build new unrelated words (e.g., picture of sun = “son”)  Useful but still needed ~700 symbols (1 for each syllable) How many scribes would there be & what would be their status?

26. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING
Ideographic writing (c.3000 B.C.E.): Pictographs can stand for something more abstract (e.g., picture of son = “day”, “light”, or “heat”
Rebus writing (c.2100 B.C.E.): Using phonetic values suggested by pictographs to build new unrelated words (e.g., picture of sun = “son”)  Useful but still needed ~700 symbols (1 for each syllable) Narrow, highly specialized class of scribes rest of society heavily depends on

28. Cuneiform comes from the Latin word, cuneus,meaning wedge
Cuneiform comes from the Latin word, cuneus,meaning wedge. Early pictographs drawn in clay presented the problem of clay bunching up and constantly having to be cleaned off of the tablet. As inventories and the size of tablets needed to record them grew, scribes sitting in the fields found it easier to write if the tablets were turned 90º, those at the temple reading them kept them facing the same direction.

29. Then someone came up with the time saving idea of just punching wedge shaped marks in the clay, thus eliminating the need to stop and clean off the bunched up clay. While this greatly sped up the process of writing, it made the pictographs over time increasingly both more abstract and simpler to write.

30. A cuneiform record of someone’s sheep and goats

31. A scribe, sitting in a typical cross-legged position, takes dictation
A scribe, sitting in a typical cross-legged position, takes dictation. Historians believe this sitting position, which would be more practical in the fields where there would be no desks, caused early pictographic writing in Mesopotamia to turn 90˚ counter-clockwise

32. A Sumerian scribe working in the temple of palace archives
A Sumerian scribe working in the temple of palace archives. Typically, such clay tablets were not meant to be permanently kept. However, many survived inadvertently when some war or disaster burned the city, thus firing and preserving the tablets.

33. Left: The Rosetta Stone, the trilingual inscription that allowed Francois Champollion to crack the code and decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphics.
Below: An Egyptian cartouche, an oval box containing a proper name, another key to translating Hieroglyphics

36. The evolution of Chinese writing from pictographs
The evolution of Chinese writing from pictographs. There are over 40,000 characters in this script, although a knowledge of about 4000 of those is considered adequate to be qualified as literate. At the bottom are several examples of how various characters are combined to make new words. One of the common myths about Chinese writing is that it is ideographic. In fact, it’s in the rebus stage, with one symbol for each syllable

37. Since writing was so specialized & so few people could write, merchants would sign documents prepared for them by scribes with signature seals such as these. Below right is a cuneiform tablet with a signaure seal impression to make it a legal document.

38. Since early writing first evolved to keep inventories, a form of early math also had to be developed as in this early Sumerian tablet. From top to bottom we see recorded 8 "gur-sag-gal" of barley, 16 "pounds" of wool and 16 "quarts" of oil. Surprisingly, a sophisticated math evolved in Mesopotamia which could solve quadratic equations, calculate square roots and fractions, & developed algorithms for multiplication problems.

39. A Street map from the city of Nippur (c. 1500 B. C
A Street map from the city of Nippur (c.1500 B.C.) showing the main temples & sights

40. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING
Ideographic writing (c.3000 B.C.E.): Pictographs can stand for something more abstract (e.g., picture of son = “day”, “light”, or “heat”
Rebus writing (c.2100 B.C.E.): Using phonetic values suggested by pictographs to build new unrelated words (e.g., picture of sun = “son”)  Useful but still needed ~700 symbols (1 for each syllable) Narrow, highly specialized class of scribes rest of society heavily depends on
Phonetic alphabet (c.1000 B.C.E.): one symbol for each sound we make  Much simpler
Number of people who can read & write?
Better record keeping Much bigger states & trade routes
Expands uses of writing to literature & history

41. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING
Ideographic writing (c.3000 B.C.E.): Pictographs can stand for something more abstract (e.g., picture of son = “day”, “light”, or “heat”
Rebus writing (c.2100 B.C.E.): Using phonetic values suggested by pictographs to build new unrelated words (e.g., picture of sun = “son”)  Useful but still needed ~700 symbols (1 for each syllable) Narrow, highly specialized class of scribes rest of society heavily depends on
Phonetic alphabet (c.1000 B.C.E.): one symbol for each sound we make  Much simpler
Many more literate people  Lowers scribes’ status
Impact on trade & size of states?
Expands uses of writing to literature & history

42. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING
Ideographic writing (c.3000 B.C.E.): Pictographs can stand for something more abstract (e.g., picture of son = “day”, “light”, or “heat”
Rebus writing (c.2100 B.C.E.): Using phonetic values suggested by pictographs to build new unrelated words (e.g., picture of sun = “son”)  Useful but still needed ~700 symbols (1 for each syllable) Narrow, highly specialized class of scribes rest of society heavily depends on
Phonetic alphabet (c.1000 B.C.E.): one symbol for each sound we make  Much simpler
Many more literate people  Lowers scribes’ status
Better record keeping Much bigger states & trade routes
Uses of writing?

43. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT
The birth of agriculture (FC.4)
The rise of cities (FC.6)
New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods
Expanded trade More & new types of tokens
Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens
Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes 
If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference
If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal
Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens
Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else
STAGES OF WRITING
STAGES OF WRITING
Ideographic writing (c.3000 B.C.E.): Pictographs can stand for something more abstract (e.g., picture of son = “day”, “light”, or “heat”
Rebus writing (c.2100 B.C.E.): Using phonetic values suggested by pictographs to build new unrelated words (e.g., picture of sun = “son”)  Useful but still needed ~700 symbols (1 for each syllable) Narrow, highly specialized class of scribes rest of society heavily depends on
Phonetic alphabet (c.1000 B.C.E.): one symbol for each sound we make  Much simpler
Many more literate people  Lowers scribes’ status
Better record keeping Much bigger states & trade routes
Expands uses of writing to literature & history