1. Diction Say What You Mean and Mean What You Say

2. Diction Is at the heart of any discussion about style Is at the heart of any discussion about style =word choice, figurative language, sound of sentences =word choice, figurative language, sound of sentences Above and beyond grammar, creates the tone of a text Above and beyond grammar, creates the tone of a text

3. Diction Tone Tone The speaker’s attitude toward the subject matter or audience, as revealed by the choice of language and the rhythms of speech The speaker’s attitude toward the subject matter or audience, as revealed by the choice of language and the rhythms of speech E.g. sarcastic, matter-of-fact, cold, energetic, academic, humorous, etc. E.g. sarcastic, matter-of-fact, cold, energetic, academic, humorous, etc.

4. Diction Level of language: Level of language: Formal Formal characterized by a learned vocabulary and grammatically correct forms. Does not usually include colloquialisms characterized by a learned vocabulary and grammatically correct forms. Does not usually include colloquialisms Informal Informal language closest to everyday conversation; may include colloquialisms and slang language closest to everyday conversation; may include colloquialisms and slang

5. Diction Level of language: Level of language: Slang Slang Lively, colourful language that is often limited to certain groups (social, regional) and passes in and out of fashion Lively, colourful language that is often limited to certain groups (social, regional) and passes in and out of fashion “Fine Writing” “Fine Writing” Unnecessarily formal or pretentious diction Unnecessarily formal or pretentious diction

6. Two-Part Verbs Simple verb in combination with another word or words Simple verb in combination with another word or words E.g. cool off, sit down, find out E.g. cool off, sit down, find out Often form idiomatic expressions that are informal or colloquial in tone Often form idiomatic expressions that are informal or colloquial in tone Avoid or use sparingly in academic writing Avoid or use sparingly in academic writing

7. Figurative Language Provides a writer with the opportunity to write imaginatively, while also testing the imagination of the reader Provides a writer with the opportunity to write imaginatively, while also testing the imagination of the reader Helps readers visualize what is being written about Helps readers visualize what is being written about Enhances style by making texts more interesting Enhances style by making texts more interesting Sharpens meaning Sharpens meaning

8. Imagery Creates pictures in the reader’s mind, and also suggests a number of imaginative associations Creates pictures in the reader’s mind, and also suggests a number of imaginative associations

9. Figure of Speech An example of figurative language that states something that is not literally true in order to create an effect An example of figurative language that states something that is not literally true in order to create an effect Some common figures of speech are: Some common figures of speech are:

10. Simile A comparison using “like” or “as.” The similarity between two objects is made explicit; there is no pretence of absolute identity. A comparison using “like” or “as.” The similarity between two objects is made explicit; there is no pretence of absolute identity. Example: Example: The river is like a snake winding across the plain. The river is like a snake winding across the plain.

11. Metaphor An assertion that two things in some way similar are identical An assertion that two things in some way similar are identical Example: Example: The river is a snake winding across the plain. The river is a snake winding across the plain. The river snakes its way across the plain. The river snakes its way across the plain. The river winds snakily across the plain. The river winds snakily across the plain.

12. Irony Recognition of the difference between real and apparent meaning Recognition of the difference between real and apparent meaning There are many different types of irony, but the most common in academic writing is: There are many different types of irony, but the most common in academic writing is:

13. Verbal Irony The contrast is between the literal meaning of what is said and what is meant; the meaning of the words used is the opposite of their sense. The contrast is between the literal meaning of what is said and what is meant; the meaning of the words used is the opposite of their sense. Satire (and its cousin sarcasm) is a form of verbal irony. Satire (and its cousin sarcasm) is a form of verbal irony.

14. Figurative Language Gone Wrong Inappropriate Metaphors Inappropriate Metaphors Create images that don’t make sense or are inappropriate for your audience Create images that don’t make sense or are inappropriate for your audience Overextended Metaphors Overextended Metaphors Are too long, and the metaphor takes control; in other words, the point you want to make is lost Are too long, and the metaphor takes control; in other words, the point you want to make is lost

15. Figurative Language Gone Wrong Dead Metaphors & Clichés Dead Metaphors & Clichés Have little force and tend to be ineffective Have little force and tend to be ineffective Mixed Metaphors Mixed Metaphors Abruptly switch from one comparison to another without intending to Abruptly switch from one comparison to another without intending to

16. Concrete and Abstract Diction Concrete words Concrete words Denote tangible things capable of being apprehended by the physical senses Denote tangible things capable of being apprehended by the physical senses Abstract words Abstract words Denote intangible things like ideas or qualities Denote intangible things like ideas or qualities

17. Concrete and Abstract Diction You need a combination of both, but be sure to ground your writing in the concrete (use specific examples to illustrate your points) You need a combination of both, but be sure to ground your writing in the concrete (use specific examples to illustrate your points) Readers remember the concrete – it illustrates and lends meaning to the abstract Readers remember the concrete – it illustrates and lends meaning to the abstract The more specific (i.e. concrete) your writing is, the clearer and more effective it will be The more specific (i.e. concrete) your writing is, the clearer and more effective it will be

18. Weak Generalizations AVOID AT ALL COSTS!!! AVOID AT ALL COSTS!!! Use examples and always be specific Use examples and always be specific Employ: Employ: Figurative language Figurative language Imagery Imagery Research sources Research sources as necessitated by the assignment

19. Denotation and Connotation Denotation Denotation What a word means (dictionary definition) What a word means (dictionary definition) What a word signifies without emotional associations, judgements, or opinions What a word signifies without emotional associations, judgements, or opinions Connotation Connotation What a word suggests What a word suggests Usually determined through context Usually determined through context

20. Denotation and Connotation When choosing words, pay attention to connotative meanings that you may not intend When choosing words, pay attention to connotative meanings that you may not intend Example: Example: Brash denotes confidence, but has negative connotations Brash denotes confidence, but has negative connotations Self-assured also denotes confidence, but it carries more positive connotations Self-assured also denotes confidence, but it carries more positive connotations

21. Euphemism An inoffensive or positive word or phrase used to avoid a harsh, unpleasant, or distasteful reality An inoffensive or positive word or phrase used to avoid a harsh, unpleasant, or distasteful reality A tactful word or phrase which avoids directly mentioning a painful reality A tactful word or phrase which avoids directly mentioning a painful reality (from William Lutz, “The World of Doublespeak” (from William Lutz, “The World of Doublespeak” Only the first definition constitutes “doublespeak” Only the first definition constitutes “doublespeak” doublespeak is misleading or deceiving doublespeak is misleading or deceiving

22. Jargon The specialized language of a trade, profession, or similar group The specialized language of a trade, profession, or similar group Is doublespeak if it is used to make the simple seem complex, “used not to express but to impress” (Lutz) Is doublespeak if it is used to make the simple seem complex, “used not to express but to impress” (Lutz)

23. Bureaucratese A method of piling on words to overwhelm the audience A method of piling on words to overwhelm the audience it sounds good but really makes no sense it sounds good but really makes no sense

24. Inflated Language Remember “Fine Writing”? Remember “Fine Writing”? Political correctness can fall into this category Political correctness can fall into this category Often also constitutes a kind of euphamism Often also constitutes a kind of euphamism

25. Wrong Word Incorrect word choice is a common student error Incorrect word choice is a common student error If you aren’t sure what word to use, consult your dictionary If you aren’t sure what word to use, consult your dictionary

26. Wordiness & Redundancy Clear the deadwood Clear the deadwood Strive for clarity and precision Strive for clarity and precision As you proofread and revise a text, delete unnecessary words but keep or add exact ones. As you proofread and revise a text, delete unnecessary words but keep or add exact ones.

27. Wordiness & Redundancy Wordy first draft: Wordy first draft: In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax. In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax. First revision: First revision: In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax. In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax.

28. Wordiness & Redundancy Second revision: Second revision: In early February a (really mean) vicious blizzard with (very high) 150-kilometer- per-hour winds was (moving threateningly toward) threatening Halifax. In early February a (really mean) vicious blizzard with (very high) 150-kilometer- per-hour winds was (moving threateningly toward) threatening Halifax. Finished copy: Finished copy: In early February a vicious blizzard with 150-kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening Halifax. In early February a vicious blizzard with 150-kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening Halifax.

29. Wordiness & Redundancy Compare: Compare: In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax. In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax. In early February a vicious blizzard with 150-kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening Halifax. In early February a vicious blizzard with 150-kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening Halifax.

30. Wordiness & Redundancy Make every word count Make every word count Omit words or phrases that add nothing to your meaning Omit words or phrases that add nothing to your meaning Guidelines for omitting wordiness: Guidelines for omitting wordiness:

31. Wordiness & Redundancy Avoid tautology (the use of different words to say the same thing) Avoid tautology (the use of different words to say the same thing) Wordy: Wordy: Commuters going back and forth to work or school formed carpools. Commuters going back and forth to work or school formed carpools. Concise: Concise: Commuters formed carpools. Commuters formed carpools.

32. Wordiness & Redundancy The useless words in brackets below serve only to echo meaning The useless words in brackets below serve only to echo meaning Avoid such wordiness in your own writing: Avoid such wordiness in your own writing: yellow [in colour] yellow [in colour] circular [in shape] circular [in shape] at 9:45 pm [that night] at 9:45 pm [that night] return [back] return [back] [basic] essentials [basic] essentials bitter[-tasting] drink bitter[-tasting] drink but [though] but [though]

33. Wordiness & Redundancy Do not use many words when a few will express the idea well Do not use many words when a few will express the idea well Wordy: Wordy: In the event that the evaluation system is changed, expect complaints on the part of employees. In the event that the evaluation system is changed, expect complaints on the part of employees. Concise: Concise: If the evaluation system is changed, expect complaints from employees. (2 words take the place of 8) If the evaluation system is changed, expect complaints from employees. (2 words take the place of 8)

34. Wordiness & Redundancy Wordy: Wordy: As far as sexism is concerned, it seems to me that a woman can be as guilty of sexism as a man. As far as sexism is concerned, it seems to me that a woman can be as guilty of sexism as a man. Concise: Concise: A woman can be as guilty of sexism as a man. (11 useless words deleted) A woman can be as guilty of sexism as a man. (11 useless words deleted)

35. Wordiness & Redundancy Beware ready-made phrases: Beware ready-made phrases: at this point in time → now at this point in time → now bring to a conclusion → conclude bring to a conclusion → conclude during the same time that → while during the same time that → while in a great many instances → often in a great many instances → often on account of the fact that → because on account of the fact that → because situated in the vicinity of → near situated in the vicinity of → near was of the opinion that → believed was of the opinion that → believed by means of → by by means of → by due to the fact that → because due to the fact that → because

36. Passive Voice Passive voice is wordy. Passive voice is wordy. Active voice is direct. Active voice is direct. Example: Example: Be assured that action will be taken. Be assured that action will be taken. I assure you that I will act. I assure you that I will act. Passive voice often leaves the actor of the verb out of the construction (as in the example above). Passive voice often leaves the actor of the verb out of the construction (as in the example above).

37. Awkward Repetition Avoid careless or needless repetition of a word or phrase Avoid careless or needless repetition of a word or phrase Faulty: Faulty: This interesting instructor knows how to make an uninteresting subject interesting. This interesting instructor knows how to make an uninteresting subject interesting. Revised: Revised: This instructor knows how to make a dull subject interesting. This instructor knows how to make a dull subject interesting.

38. Awkward Repetition Awkward: Awkward: We had problems solving these problems. We had problems solving these problems. Revised: Revised: We had a hard time solving these problems. We had a hard time solving these problems. Awkward: Awkward: His boss is not like her boss. Her boss is more reliable than his boss. His boss is not like her boss. Her boss is more reliable than his boss. Revised: Revised: Their bosses are different. Hers is more reliable than his. Their bosses are different. Hers is more reliable than his.

39. Awkward Repetition Avoid carelessly repeating a root or word base. Avoid carelessly repeating a root or word base. Awkward: Awkward: I got the impression that his expression of sympathy was insincere. I got the impression that his expression of sympathy was insincere. Revised: Revised: I felt that his expression of sympathy was insincere. I felt that his expression of sympathy was insincere.

40. Awkward Repetition Eliminate careless rhymes and other distracting repetition of sounds. Eliminate careless rhymes and other distracting repetition of sounds. Awkward: Awkward: The use of catalytic converters is just one contribution to the solution of the problem of air pollution. The use of catalytic converters is just one contribution to the solution of the problem of air pollution. Revised: Revised: The use of catalytic converters is just one way to help reduce air pollution. The use of catalytic converters is just one way to help reduce air pollution.

41. Politics and the English Language (by George Orwell) Written in 1946, yet his complaints about Modern English still relevant Written in 1946, yet his complaints about Modern English still relevant The errors and shortcuts that he points out are those we have just discussed The errors and shortcuts that he points out are those we have just discussed

42. Politics and the English Language Questions writers should ask themselves: Questions writers should ask themselves: What am I trying to say? What am I trying to say? What words will express it? What words will express it? What image or idiom will make it clearer? What image or idiom will make it clearer? Is this image fresh enough to have an effect? Is this image fresh enough to have an effect? Could I put it more shortly? Could I put it more shortly? Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly? Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly?

43. Politics and the English Language Orwell wants us to ground our writing in the concrete rather than in the abstract. Orwell wants us to ground our writing in the concrete rather than in the abstract. Be specific, not vague. Be specific, not vague. Choose rather than simply accept the language that you use – come up with your own metaphors and turns of phrase rather than using ready-mades. Choose rather than simply accept the language that you use – come up with your own metaphors and turns of phrase rather than using ready-mades.

44. Politics and the English Language Rules writers should follow: Rules writers should follow: Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print. Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print. Never use a long word where a short one will do. Never use a long word where a short one will do. If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out. If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.

45. Politics and the English Language (Rules cont’d) (Rules cont’d) Never use the passive voice where you can use the active. Never use the passive voice where you can use the active. Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent. Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent. Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous. Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.