1. By Mr. Abdalla A. Shaame

2.  The rights and wrongs of science and technology

3.  Science has been getting some bad press over the last decade or two.  More and more scientists have been accused of behaving badly, in some cases, they have been accused of mistreating human or animal subjects.  To clarify the right and wrong of science and technology, we have to know two things  We have two know what the conduct is and we have to know what standards to judge it

4.  When we considering the right and wrong of the science and technology we consider a principle known by awkward name “universalisability”  This is exemplified by so called Golden Rule means that you should always act towards others as you would hope they will act towards you.  Actually, the Golden Rule is a good place to start, but it has its problems, because people have a different tastes.  Some people did not accept that human rights and considerations should be extended to human and non-human species.

5.  There are two types of approach to deciding what is right and wrong. These approach are  Consequentialism  Non-consequentialism or deontological 

6.  Consequentialism begins with the view that acts are not right or wrong in themselves, but only because of their consequences.  A consequentialist believes that the most important thing is to consider the ends of one’s actions.  If the end or the consequence is good, then the means to achieve it is also good  When we working out what is the right thing to do, we should examine the total consequences for everyone, not just ourselves, and chose the act that has the best overall consequences.

7.  Lying, or even killing, to achieve a good end may be permissible from a consequentialist perspective.  The appropriate and difficult question for a consequentialist, however, is what is good and how can we measure it

8.  The most influential form of consequentialism is utilitarianism  Utilitarianism urges that, our acts should be aimed at maximising the happiness and well- being of the greatest number of people.  Utilitarianism can justify stepping on the rights of the individual if this is demonstrably good for the greatest number.  Rule utilitarians believe in adopting a moral code that people generally agree achieves the greatest good of the greatest number overall.

9.  Deontological means a belief that certain actions, and even motives are good, while others are bad.  If we believe that killing, stealing and lying are wrong at all times and in all cultures, we are adopting a deontological perspective.  For example, religious believers often regards act in this way. Here the consequence of the act are not of interest, only the fact that God spoke about them.  Other deontological views are not religiously bases. If we live in a country, then we are bound by its laws. Eg driving drunkenly is a breach of our contract and so wrong itself.

10.  Deontology is sometimes called non- consequentialism, because we are not so much concerned with the consequences of our behaviour as whether it is right or wrong.  Deontological arguments are often based on human rights.  If humans have a conscience or the capacity for morality, they also have free will and dignity.  Deontological arguments also favour equality and justice because these are consistent with dignity and respect for other human beings.

11.  The good thing about deontology is that makes it clear what right and wrong is.  Its weakness is that it tends to view a very gray modern world in terms that are black and white.  Moreover, it is highly resistant to change.  In a changing society or in extreme circumstances, sometimes rigid moral codes can be a problem.

12.  For example, one might believe that killing is wrong, but what does one do during wartime?  A good example of a deontological approach to science would be the condemnation of any experiments on human beings that are conducted without the free consent of the individuals being tested.

13.  Since there is millions of scientists in the world, and only a small number of major controversies. It is unlikely that most scientists have any thing to do with them.  Majority of scientific world-wide work on commercial organization.  Some of the most amazing problems arise in academic science.  Academic science is self-regulating professional system.  Science produce knowledge, and if acceptable to journal reference, it is published.  Science is a career and ambitious people are temped to cut corners and perhaps behave improperly to achieve success. This can be a happen through practicing:

14. Fraud  There is a constant temptation on the part of scientists to claim results which were in fact not produced by experiments.  This can happen if cherished theory is not supported by evidence.  For instance, Darsee published nearly 100 papers in years at Harvard University, however follow researchers became suspicious of their high productivity, and eventually after extensive investigation he lost his job.

15. Plagiarism  Plagiarism is taking of work and credit for that work from its rightful owner.  Sometime it is simple theft and more like extortion.

16.  Controversies regarding Science and Technology