1. Gender and Language Mac Stant and Stephanie Cotton

2. Introduction Language and Gender research formally began in the 1970s. Contributions to the topic from other areas- anthropology, education, women’s studies, social psychology, etc. Different types of studies have looked at gender: variationist (quantifying gender differences), interactional studies (context, same-gender, mixed-gender), Fluid models (e.g. unisex), Alternative contexts for communication.

3. Main Points of Gender and Language Use Direct relationships between gender & language (e.g. Japanese, Hopi, etc). Language & gender research concerned with: Male and female differences Gender cultural difference verses power and dominance Gendered language use interpreted as reflecting pre- existing & maintaining social distinctions Past: Gender roles were more well defined Present: Subgroups within those gender categories Future: Lack of language-gender differentiation possible

4. Relationships Between Gender & Language Labov’s New York City Not only did language vary based on socioeconomic status... But he found… women use more prestige features (status conscious), men more vernacular features (overt prestige) Problems with methodologies Social class divisions not necessarily accurate Interpreting differences - lack of “convincing evidence”

5. Gender & Language Relationships (cont.) Caribs (men) Arawak (women) 10% vocabulary not shared by both sexes Native American languages Different verb forms in Koasati, Hopi’s “Thank You” Japanese Women- Formal pronouns in informal situations Women- Absence of deprecatory pronouns South African-Xhosa speakers Hlonipha-women’s language of respect German women reference- Video

6. Main Points of Gender and Language Use Direct relationships between gender & language (e.g. Japanese, Hopi, etc).  Language & gender research concerned with:  Male and female differences  Gender cultural difference verses power and dominance Gendered language use interpreted as reflecting pre- existing & maintaining social distinctions Past: Gender roles were more well defined Present: Subgroups within those gender categories Future: Lack of language-gender differentiation possible

7. Gender Differences (cont.) Differing features of conversational style Amount of talk (Coates) Mixed groups-men talk more especially in formal & public contexts Same sex groups- amt. talk equal Interruptions (Zimmerman & West) Men interrupt women more than vice versa Conversational support (Fishman) Women gave more conversational support than men leaving more opportunities for men’s stories to get expanded upon. Tentativeness (Lackoff, 1975, Holmes, 1995) Women use more hedges and tag questions, Compliments (Metshire, et. al., 2001) Women pay and receive more compliments Topic of talk (Coates, Tannen) Women speak and hear a language of connection and intimacy (Tannen), Personal Topics (Coates) Men speak and hear a language of status and independence (Tannen), Non-personal Topics (Coates) What are your mixed-gender miscommunication experiences?

8. Gender as Cultural Difference MALTZ & BORKER Gender Communication Differences Learned as Children. I Just don’t Understand You Minimal responses indicate attention for women, but for men they signal agreement -> why females use them more Women- “mmmhmm” = “I’m listening.” Men – “mmmhmmm” = “I agree.” TANNEN- It’s Just a Difference Men and Women just have different communication expectations. Men say to women – “fight for your right to topic  Men want women to mount resistance when they lead the conversation in another direction and take center stage byu telling a story, etc. Women’s overlapping agreements and support seen as interruptions  Women are irritated by men who interrupt to change eht conversational topic.

9. Gender Dominance Lakoff (1975) – Informal Observations and Intuitions Deficit model of language use Women’s speaking style (uncertainty and hesitancy) denies them access to power. Zimmerman & West (1975)- Empirical Study of Conversation Interruptions- more occurred in mixed-sex groups, most by men. Women are not inadequate but men oppress women with their interruptions, denying them an = status as a communication partner UCHIA & TROEMEL-PLOETZ- Men are BAD! CAMERON- Men are BAD! COATES- Don’t call it dominance You don’t have to ‘put down’ men to ‘bring up’ women.

10. Main Points of Gender and Language Use Direct relationships between gender & language (e.g. Japanese, Hopi, etc). Language & gender research concerned with: Male and female differences Gender cultural difference verses power and dominance  Gendered language use interpreted as reflecting pre- existing & maintaining social distinctions  Past: Gender roles were more well defined  Present: Subgroups within those gender categories  Future: Lack of language-gender differentiation possible

11. Pre-Existing Social Distinctions Past Concrete & Established Gender Identity Men and Women had more defined gender roles Remember the Language Forms Japanese pronouns & deprecatory words Lack of Mobility - less interaction with different communication styles Nichols (1979) – the women who took less traditional work roles outside of the homes & further from their homes experienced language variation different from those who stayed home. Older women and men stayed in local community and maintained their Creole language Value placed on upholding traditions (language)

12. Individual Gender Fluidity Past no mobility-meant there weren’t as many subgroups to identify with. Male, female, or undesirable. Present: Greater subgroups to choose from due to increased interactions/mobility (Nichols). More flexible gender roles Milroy- language reflects community integration as opposed to gender differences Female gender is more flexible German school girls Japanese school girls Women can violate gender rules more easily than men can (posture, etc. ) however, that gap is beginning to close (stay at home dads, dancing, etc.)

13. Maintaining Social Distinctions: Present Childrearing Practices Value of Identifying Gender Immediately Maltz & Borker Single Sex Peer Groups from an early age Media Advertisements, etc. Sunderland (1995) German classroom research The boys reported they would not say, “we’re girls.” It’s not possible. girls forfeit gender for participation – “We’re boys!”

14. Changing Social Distinctions: Present/Future People taking on different gender roles Transexuals Electronic Communication – lack of gender identification and adress on the internet may effect how people habitually interact (McAdams). Japanese Girls using vernacular terms in school but not with their elders. In the future a heterosexual man may say to another heterosexual male friend, “you’re a diva” and mean it as a compliment. Written Language Paradox- “he/she.” In the future will we create new vocabulary (“shim”)?

15. References Metshire, Swainn, Deumert, & Leap (2000). Gender and Language Use. In Introducing Sociolinguistics. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing. (216-247). Tannen, D. (1994). Interpreting interruption in conversation. In Gender & discourse. Oxford University Press (53-79).