1. Nigeria "Not all of us will hold government appointments, but all of us can contribute to the new dawn in Nigeria." -President Olusegun Obasanjo *Adapted from Comparative Government and Politics by Ethel Wood.

3. Nigeria: A study in contrasts Strong democracy, susceptible to totalitarian rule Vast resources, but 70% live in poverty Population split evenly between Islam and Christianity Dozens of ethnicities within borders.

4. Public Authority and Political Power Independent nation since 1960 Dilemma – “National Question”- How should the country be governed, who should govern and should Nigeria be a nation?? Regional disagreements, hostilities and problem solving with force

5. Constitutionalism 1 st Constitution in 1914, but eight since. Last one introduced in 1995 and heavily amended. Constitutionalism doesn’t exist (no guiding sense of principles) Without Constitutionalism, national question harder to answer.

6. Legitimacy Low legitimacy Little or no trust in leaders As a colony, relied on British rule of law Independent, military might and authoritarian rule led to corruption and cynicism. Nigerians skeptical about their government.

7. Political Traditions Pre-Colonial Era (800-1860) Trade connections Early influence of Islam Kinship based politics Complex political identities Democratic impulses

8. The Colonial Era (1860-1960) Authoritarian rule Interventionist state Individualism Christianity Ethnic politics

9. Independence (1960-present) Parliamentary style of government replaced by a presidential system Intensification of ethnic conflict Military rule Personalized rule/corruption Federalism Economic dependence on oil

10. Political Culture Patron clientelism Undeveloped civil society Tension between modernity and tradition Religious conflict

11. Geographic Influence Located in West Africa Population 120 million Ethnic groups divided into Zones: NW NE Middle Belt SW SE So. zone

12. Political Change Political Change in Nigeria can be analyzed by dividing its history into three parts: Pre-colonial Colonial Modern eras Sources of change have varied, but all had important consequences for modern Nigeria.

13. Pre-Colonial Era Nigerian geography affected political, social and economic development. Change occurred through cultural diffusion. Fulani – came to north through jihad. Fulani established Sokoto Caliphate. Caliphate traded with Europeans and put an organized, central government in place based on religious faith. South – Christianity dominated Slave Trade in Nigeria

14. Colonial Era (1860-1960) European Influence with indirect rule Differences between North and South emphasized. Introduction of western-style education Literate population Reinforced growing cleavages Economic benefits

15. Modern Nigeria (1960-present) Socialization in western values 1966 – parliamentary government replaced by military dictatorship Government changed hands quickly and violently. Question as to whether Nigeria would survive as a country

16. Change and conflict Ethnic identities source of conflict Corruption among political elite General Abacha Promise to transfer power when country was “stable”. Elections in 1999, Pres. Olusegun Obasanjo. (re- elected 2003) Democracy?? (elections considered corrupt)

17. Society and Politics Fragmented society, with important cleavages based on ethnicity. Ethnicity Religion Region Urban v. rural Social class

18. Citizen and State Nigeria is not a democracy (yet) Activities in Civil Society showing change: Press Patron-Clientelism (prebendalism) Voting behavior Attitudes toward government

19. Political Framework Pre-colonial days: regimes varied by regions Colonization: authoritarian rule Military style regime emerged in 20 th century Formally: federalist and democratic, but does not operate that way.

20. Political Parties Regionally and ethnically based Multiparty system reinforces cleavages As of election 2003: major parties People’s Democratic party (PDP) All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP)

21. Elections and Electoral Procedures Vote on three levels: local, state, national Presidential elections Legislative elections Election Fraud

22. Interest Groups Labor Unions Business Interests Human Rights Groups

23. National Government Constitutions have provided for three branches of government, but executive branch dominates policy making. Currently, neither federalism, nor checks and balances operate and state governments are totally dependent on the central government.

24. The Executive In 1979, parliamentary system modeled after Britain replaced by presidential system. US presidential model followed, including two terms for President. The Executive Under military rule Patrimonialism

25. The Bureaucracy Growing civil service Corruption and prebendalism Para-statals State Corporatism

26. The Legislature The Nigerian legislature has taken several different forms since independence, and it has been disbanded a number of times by military rulers. The Senate The National Assembly

27. The Judiciary During early years of independence, the Nigerian judiciary had a good deal of autonomy. Judiciary undermined by military decrees Judges render decisions manipulated by the government Two notorious cases: Mshood Abiolao Ken Saro-Wiwa

28. The Military Strong force behind policymaking in Nigeria. Distinctions made between “military in government” and “military in barracks.” Internal discord in military

29. Policymaking and Current Issues Top down policy making process Loyalty pyramid System operates under the assumption that the military and political elite operate with only their self-interest in mind. Patron-client system

30. Economic Issues Result of loyalty pyramid is squandering of Nigeria’s wealth. Deeply in debt, most live in poverty Ethnic and regional hostilities and distrust of government led to diversion of oil money.

31. Oil: Strength or Weakness? During 1970’s Nigeria’s oil wealth gave it international leverage. Member of OPEC Foreign countries rely on Nigeria in times of Mid-east conflict When oil prices go down: Nigeria suffers.

32. Structural Adjustment Nigeria relies on international organizations to help manage huge debt. Structural Adjustment program with World Bank and IMF – attempted to decrease reliance on oil and improve Nigerian economy. Para-statals still under state control, no real growth in private economic sector.

33. “Federal Character” Benefits of Federalism (positive, desirable, shared power, people represented). In Nigeria, goal is to seek a “federal character” for the nation. Nigerian Constitution supports this goal. Do Nigerian’s have enough in common to remain together as a country?

34. Reforms Since military regime left in 1999: Public enterprises have been privatized Plan for alleviating poverty in place Public wages increased Some Abacha money returned to state Nigeria’s financial reserves have grown because oil prices have been more stable in past few years.

35. A Fledgling Democracy? Are recent reforms stabilizing Nigeria? Elections may be interpreted to support either an optimistic or pessimistic view for Nigeria’s future prospects. Experience of democracy

36. Terms and Concepts Abacha ANPP Biafra Babangida Civil society Constitutionalism Corporatism “federal character” Hausa-Fulani Igbo Indirect rule INEC jihad Kanuri Kinship based politics “loyalty pyramd” “the National Question” Olusegun Obasanjo Para-statals Patrimonialism Prebendalism (patron-client) “true federalism” movement Yoruba