1. Aerobic Endurance Training

2. Physiological Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training
Respiratory System
Enhanced oxygen exchange in the lungs
Improved blood flow through lungs
Decreased submaximal respiratory rate:
The number of breaths a person makes per minute. Average 12 breaths per minute (8 to 16 range).
Decreased submaximal pulmonary ventilation:
the distribution of the air a person breathes into the lung

3. Physiological Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training
Cardiovascular System
Increased Cardiac Output:
Total volume of blood pumped by the ventricle per minute, or simply the product of heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV)
Stroke volume is the volume of blood, normally about 70 ml, ejected from the heart into the aorta during the contraction of the ventricles (systole).

4. Physiological Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training
Increased blood volume and red blood cell number
Increase in myoglobin
Iron-containing, oxygen-carrying pigment present in muscle tissue
It supplies oxygen to the muscle during strenuous exercise, when the muscle oxygen demands out paces the supply from the blood.

5. Physiological Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training
Enhanced blood flow to skeletal muscles
Decrease in resting heart rate
Decrease in exercising heart rate
Improved thermoregulation (the regulating of body temperature)
Increased insulin sensitivity
Increased lactate removal by organs-increased lactate threshold, tolerance of high intensity effort

6. Physiological Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training
Musculoskeletal System
Increased mitochondrial size and density
Cell organelles that metabolize sugars into energy = ATP
Increased ATP, CP (creatine phosphate), and glycogen stores
Increased oxidative enzyme concentration (specific proteins that act to speed up chemical reactions.)

7. Physiological Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training
Increased capillarization in muscle bed
The smallest blood vessels. Oxygen and nutrients leave the bloodstream through capillaries to get into the body
Increased arteriovenous oxygen difference:
Amount of oxygen extracted from transported blood

8. Factors Related to Aerobic Endurance Performance
Maximal Aerobic Power (VO2Max)
Lactate Threshold
Exercise Economy
Fuel Utilization

9. Maximal Aerobic Power (VO2 Max)
VO2 Max: maximum volume of oxygen consumed by the body each minute during exercise
Maximal Aerobic Power is a measure of a person’s capacity for aerobic ATP resynthesis
There is a high correlation between VO2max and performance in aerobic endurance events.

12. VO2 Max Tests Sport Squash Football (male) Rugby Baseball (male)
>75 ml/kg/min
Endurance Runners and Cyclists
65 ml/kg/min
Squash
60-65 ml/kg/min
Football (male)
55 ml/kg/min
Rugby
50 ml/kg/min
Volleyball (female)
Baseball (male)

13. Lactate Threshold Lactic Acid:
A substance which forms in the muscles as a result of the incomplete breakdown of glucose (sugar)
Associated with muscle fatigue and sore muscles
The lactate threshold is that speed of movement or percentage of VO2 max at which specific blood lactate concentration begins to increase above resting levels

14. Factors Related to Aerobic Endurance Performance
Lactate Threshold
In aerobic endurance events, the best competitor among athletes with similar VO2max values is typically the person who can sustain aerobic energy production at the highest percentage of his or her VO2max without accumulating large amounts of lactic acid in the muscle and blood. . .

15. Values approaching 90% have been reported
Lactate Threshold
Elite endurance athletes typically have Lactate Threshold’s at or above 80% of VO2 max
Values approaching 90% have been reported
The lactate threshold is both responsive to training and influenced by genetics.

16. How to Improve Lactate Threshold
Training
Results in a decrease in lactate production at any given exercise intensity
Untrained individuals usually reach the Lactate Threshold about 60% of VO2 max
With training, Lactate Threshold can increase from 60% to above 70% or even higher

17. Maximal Lactate Steady State
Maximal lactate production is equal to maximal lactate clearance within the body
Better indicator of aerobic endurance performance than VO2 max and lactate threshold
Aerobic endurance athletes must improve their lactate threshold or maximal lactate steady state

18. Exercise Economy
A measure of the energy cost of an activity at a given speed (velocity)
Example: swimmers using less oxygen
As swimmers increase their speeds, more muscular effort is required, and more muscular by-products such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid are produced. This process induces fatigue in the muscles, and distance per stroke begins to decrease

19. Fuel Utilization
Fat and carbohydrate are the fuels utilized during aerobic endurance exercise
The degree to which each fuel acts as the primary or secondary source of energy depends on the prior nutrition of the athlete and the intensity and duration of the exercise

20. Fuel Utilization
At low to moderate levels of prolonged exercise (50%-70% VO2 ) most energy needs come from fat and lesser energy needs come from carbohydrate
At higher intensities (greater than 70% VO2 max) carbohydrates are utilized more than fat
Protein plays only a minor role at very high levels of energy utilization, but adequate protein intake is critical for maintenance of lean body mass to enable exercise performance

21. The Myth of the “Fat-Burning” Zone
There is no magical “fat-burning” zone for exercise
Body fat reduction only takes place when there is more energy being burned than consumed
This is known as the law of thermodynamics
It is not how much fat an individual burns that ultimately dictates body fat reduction, it is how many calories burned!

22. Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 1: Exercise Mode
Step 2: Training Frequency
Step 3: Training Intensity
Heart Rate
Ratings of Perceived Exertion
Talk Test
Metabolic Equivalents
Power Measurement
Step 4: Exercise Duration
Step 5: Exercise Progression

23. Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 1: Exercise Mode (Type)
Exercise mode is the specific activity performed by the client/athlete: cycling, running, swimming, and so on (specificity).
Remember that the more specific the training mode is to the sport, the greater the improvement in performance.
Example: your client who wishes to complete a 10K race, will spend time running on a treadmill or outdoors 23

24. Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 2: Training Frequency
The number of training sessions conducted per day or per week.
The frequency of training sessions will depend on the interaction of exercise intensity and duration, the training status of the athlete, and the specific sport season
For general health requirements:
Everyday for short quantities of time
For improved fitness levels:
5-7 days per week 24

25. Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 3: Training Intensity
Adaptations in the body are specific to the intensity of the training session.
High-intensity aerobic exercise increases cardio-vascular and respiratory function and allows for improved oxygen delivery to the working muscles.
Increasing exercise intensity may also benefit skeletal muscle adaptations by affecting muscle fiber recruitment. 25

26. Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 3: Training Intensity
Heart Rate
The most frequently used method for prescribing aerobic exercise intensity
Heart rate and oxygen consumption (VO2) are closely related
During exercise, heart rate increases linearly with increases in workload which means an increase in oxygen
The only way to determine a person’s true maximal heart rate (MHR) is to perform a graded exercise test that takes the client to the point where heart rate does not increase in workload 26

27. Target Heart Rate Target heart rate range (THRR): Percent of APMHR
Karvonen Formula: related to the percent of APMHR, except it allows for differences in resting heart rate (RHR)
Heart rate reserve (HRR):
difference between a client’s maximal heart rate and his or her resting heart rate
As a person becomes more fit and the RHR decreases, the HRR will increase; a greater reserve to draw from
For improved fitness levels: 40-85% of heart rate reserve (HRR) or 60-90% of maximal heart rate (HR max)

28. Target Heart Rate Calculations
Percentage of Maximal Heart Rate Method
Age-predicted maximum heart rate (APMHR) = 220 − age
Target heart rate (THR) = (APMHR × exercise intensity)
Do this calculation twice to determine the target heart rate range (THRR). 28

29. Table 18.1 29

30. Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) Scale
Designed to help clients monitor their exercise intensities through a ratings system that accounts for all of the body’s responses to a particular exercise intensity
Not just a measure of how fast the heart is beating but includes respiration and emotional response to exercise
Can be used as an approximation of heart rate to monitor a client’s heart rate

31. Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) Scale
Corresponds to an approximate heart rate by multiplying the RPE by 10
An RPE of 6 approximates a heart rate of 60 beats/min
0-10 Scale:
Not associated with a particular heart rate; indicates how stressful the perceived exertion is above resting level, or how much harder the exercise is than a minimal level of exertion

32. 32

33. Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) Scale
Regardless of which scale is used, the numerical ratings are associated with adjectives that describe the level of exertion
May be used when heart rate intensity prescriptions are inaccurate due to medications, pregnancy, illness…
A downside to using RPE’s is that they vary between clients and do not take individual differences into account

34. Talk Test
A client who is active at a light intensity level should be able to sing while doing the activity
A client who is active at a moderate intensity level should be able to carry on a conversation comfortably while engaging in the activity
If a client becomes winded or too out of breath to carry on a conversation, the activity can be considered vigorous.

35. Metabolic Equivalents (METs)
One MET is equal to 3.5 ml · kg–1 · min–1 of oxygen consumption and is considered the amount of oxygen required by the body at rest.
1 MET is equivalent to a metabolic rate of 1 kilocalorie per kilogram of body weight per hour
Someone who weighs 160 pounds (72 kg) would burn approximately 70 calories an hour while sitting or sleeping.
Any given MET level is an indication of how much harder than rest a particular activity is 35

36. Power Measurement
Cyclists may use power-measuring cranks and hubs to regulate exercise intensity.
Metabolic rate is closely related to mechanical power production. 36

37. Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 4: Duration
Length of time of the training session
For general health requirements:
30 minutes per day
This could be six five minute bouts
For improved fitness levels:
20-60 minutes per day

38. Key Point
The duration of a training session is often influenced by the exercise intensity
The longer the exercise duration, the lower the exercise intensity 38

39. Health and Fitness Level Requirements
For general health requirements
Use stairs
Park farther away
Mow the lawn with a push mower
Rake the leaves
Garden
For improved fitness levels
Treadmill, stationary bike, stepper
Aerobics classes
Sports
Weight training

40. Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 5: Exercise Progression
Progression of an aerobic endurance program involves increasing the frequency, intensity, and duration.
Frequency, intensity, or duration should not increase by more than 10% each week.
When it is not feasible to increase frequency or duration, progression can occur with intensity manipulation.
Progression of intensity should be monitored to prevent overtraining. 40

41. Types Aerobic Endurance Training Programs
Long Slow Distance Training
Pace/Tempo Training
Interval Training
Repetition Training
Fartlek Training
Circuit Training
Cross Training

42. Long Slow Distance Training
Training is longer than race distance (or 30 minutes to 2 hours) at 70% of VO2max.
Adaptations from this exercise include the following:
Enhances the body’s ability to clear lactate
Chronic use of this type of training causes an eventual shift of Type II fibers to Type I fibers
Intensity is lower than that of competition, which may be a disadvantage if too much LSD training is used.
Mode: swimming, running, cross country skiing, walking, biking… . 42

43. Sample LSD Training Program for a Marathon Runner43

44. Pace/Tempo Training
Intensity at or slightly above competition intensity, corresponding to the lactate threshold
Steady pace/tempo training: 20 to 30 minutes of continuous training at the lactate threshold
Intermittent pace/tempo training: series of shorter intervals with brief recovery periods
Objectives
Develop a sense of race pace and enhance the body’s ability to sustain exercise at that pace
Improve running economy and increase lactate threshold 44

45. Pace/Tempo Training Pace or Tempo Training Helps improve VO2 max
Stress the individual at a specific intensity and improve energy production from both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism
RPE of on the 6-20 scale or 4-5 on the 0-10 scale
Frequency: 1-2/week

46. Interval Training Interval Training
Exercise at an intensity close to VO2max for intervals of 3 to 5 minutes. Work to rest ratio should be 1:1
This allows athletes to train at intensities close to VO2max for a greater amount of time
It increases VO2max and enhances anaerobic metabolism
Method should be used sparingly, and only when training athletes with a firm aerobic endurance training base . . . 46

47. Interval Training
Example: 3 minutes of high intensity running with 3 minutes of a light jog
Frequency is 1-2/week
Fatigue is the result
Is also great for clients who want to burn a maximum amount of calories is the least amount of time

48. Repetition Training
Conducted at intensities greater than VO2max, with work intervals lasting seconds
Work to rest ratio is about 1:5
Long recovery periods needed between sessions
Frequency 1 x a week
Benefits include
Improved running speed and economy
Increased capacity and tolerance for anaerobic metabolism . 48

49. Sample Repetition Training Program for a Triathlete49

50. Fartlek Training
Combines other methods of training (LSD and Pace/Tempo)
Easy running (~70% VO2max) combined with hills or short, fast bursts (~85-90% VO2max)
Can be adapted for cycling and swimming
Benefits are likely to include:
Enhanced VO2max
Increased lactate threshold
Improved running economy and fuel utilization
Time: minutes
Frequency: 1/week . . . 50

51. Sample Fartlek Training Program for a Collegiate Cross-Country Runner51

52. Table 18.4 52

53. Key Point
The various types of training induce different physiological responses. A sound program should incorporate all types of training into the athlete’s weekly, monthly, and yearly training schedule. 53

54. Other Types of Aerobic Endurance Training
Cross-Training
Cross-training is a mode of training that can be used to maintain general conditioning in athletes during periods of reduced training due to injury or during recovery from a training cycle.
Combining several exercise modes to aerobic endurance training
For Example: 10 minute walk on a treadmill, 10 minute stationary biking and 10 minute on the elliptical trainer
Help reduce overuse injuries
10 minute walk on a treadmill, 10 minute stationary biking and 10 minute on the elliptical trainer 54

55. Other Types of Aerobic Endurance Training
Circuit Training
A series of resistance training exercises that an individual performs, one after the other with minimal rest
An example:
SB DB chest press
Standing cable row
Standing DB overhead shoulder press
Standing DB curl
Supine on SB DB triceps extension
Rest

56. Special Issues Related to Aerobic Endurance Training
Detraining
Occurs when the athlete/client reduces the training duration or intensity or stops training altogether due to a break in the training program, injury, or illness.
In this absence of an appropriate training stimulus, the athlete experiences a loss of the physiological adaptations brought about by training. 56

57. Special Issues Related to Aerobic Endurance Training
Tapering
Systematic reduction of training duration and intensity combined with an increased emphasis on technique work, form and nutritional intervention.
The objective of tapering the training regimen is to attain peak performance at the time of competition. 57

58. Special Issues Related to Aerobic Endurance Training
Resistance Training
Research is limited, but some data suggest that benefits can be derived from performing resistance training during aerobic endurance training.
Benefits may include
Improvement in short-term exercise performance
Faster recovery from injuries
Prevention of overuse injuries and reduction of muscle imbalances
It can improve hill climbing, bridging gaps between competitors during breakaways, and the final sprint. 58

59. Enjoyment
Amount of pleasure derived from the activity by the client
Often overlooked by personal trainers

60. Postural Considerations
For clients with upper cross posture (rounded head and forward shoulders)
During use of elliptical trainers, stationary cycles, treadmills watch for rounding of shoulders and protruding head
On steppers and treadmills, watch for grasping of the handles with an oversupinated or overpronated hand position which will cause elevated and protracted shoulders and protruding head

61. Postural Considerations
This equipment should be used without assistance of hands to increase stabilization and burn more calories
When a television is present, watch for excessive cervical extension or rotation of head to view the television

62. Postural Considerations
For clients with lower cross syndrome (anterior pelvic tilt)
Bicycles or steppers may not be warranted, hips are placed in a constant state of flexion adding to shortened hip flexors
If bicycles or steppers are used, emphasize hip flexor stretches before and after use
Treadmill speed should be kept to a controllable pace, to avoid overstriding which will cause the low back to arch, placing increased stress on the low back

63. Postural Considerations
For clients whose feet turn out and/or knees move in
Ensure proper flexibility of the ankle joint
Emphasize stretching the following muscles
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
Hip adductors
Tensor Fascia Latae and Iliotibial band
Hip flexors