Human Adjustment Personality Chapter 2: McGraw-Hill

Human Adjustment Personality Chapter 2: McGraw-Hill
© 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Outline - Chapter 2 What Is Personality? Psychodynamic Perspectives Behavioral and Social Cognitive Perspectives Humanistic Perspectives Trait Perspectives Personality Assessment ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

WHAT IS PERSONALITY? What Is Personality? McGraw-Hill
©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

What Is Personality? Theoretical perspectives on personality: psychodynamic behavioral and social cognitive humanistic trait Personality = pattern of enduring and distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize how an individual adapts to the world ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Self-Assessment How Much Do I Have a Need to be Unique?
When I am in a group of strangers I am reluctant to express my opinion openly. (A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree) I find that criticism affects my self-esteem. I sometimes hesitate to use my own ideas for fear they might be impractical. I think society should let reason lead it to new customs and throw aside old habits or mere traditions. ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Self-Assessment People frequently succeed in changing my mind.
(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree) I find it sometimes amusing to upset the dignity of teachers, judges, and “cultured” people. I like wearing a uniform because it makes me proud to be a member of the organization it represents. People have sometimes called me “stuck up.” ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Self-Assessment Others’ disagreements make me uncomfortable.
(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree) I do not always need to live by the rules and standards of society. I am unable to express my feelings if they result in undesirable consequences. Being a success in one’s career means making a contribution that no one else has made. ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Self-Assessment It bothers me if people think I am being too unconventional. (A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree) I always try to follow rules. If I disagree with a superior on his or her views, I usually do not keep it to myself. I speak up in meetings in order to oppose those whom I feel are wrong. ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Self-Assessment Feeling “different” in a crowd of people makes me feel uncomfortable. (A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree) If I must die, let it be an unusual death rather than an ordinary death in bed. I would rather be just like everyone else than be called “freak” I must admit I find it hard to work under strict rules and regulations. ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Self-Assessment I would rather be known for always trying new ideas than for employing well-trusted methods. (A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree) It is better always to agree with the opinions than to be considered a disagreeable person. I do not like to say unusual things to people. I tend to express my opinions publicly, regardless of what others say. ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Self-Assessment As a rule, I strongly defend my opinions.
(A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree) I do not like to go my own way. When I am with a group of people, I agree with their ideas so that no arguments will arise. I tend to keep quiet independent and free from family rule. ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Self-Assessment Whenever I take part in group activities, I am somewhat of a nonconformist. (A=strongly disagree; B=disagree; C=Neutral; D=agree; E=strongly agree) I tend to keep quiet in the presence of persons of higher rank, experience, etc. In most things in life, I believe in playing it safe rather than taking a gamble. It is better to break rules than always to conform with an impersonal society. ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Five Factor Personality Test
Take this assessment and score. To help develop a better picture of you personality. ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

What Is Personality? Four important questions about personality:
What role do innate and learned characteristics play in personality? To what extent is personality conscious or unconscious? How influential are internal or external factors in determining personality? What characterizes a well-adjusted personality? ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVES
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Psychodynamic Revisionists Evaluating Psychodynamic Perspectives ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychodynamic Perspectives - view personality as being primarily unconscious and as developing in stages ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud born in Austria in 1856 / died in England in 1939 spent most of life in Vienna became medical doctor specializing in neurology developed psychoanalytic theory through work with psychiatric patients ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud believed most of the mind is unconscious Freud’s psychoanalytic theory stated that personality has three structures: id - pleasure (sexual and aggressive instincts) ego - reality (deals with demands of reality) superego - conscience (morality) ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Defense Mechanisms When ego blocks pleasurable pursuits of id, person feels anxiety Defense mechanisms = ego’s protective methods for reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Defense Mechanisms Defense mechanisms include: repression
rationalization displacement sublimation projection reaction formation denial regression ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Freud’s Theory of Personality Development
Freud was convinced that problems develop because of early childhood experiences Freud proposed 5 stages of personality development: oral anal phallic latency genital ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Freud’s Theory of Personality Development
During phallic stage the Oedipus complex is a major source of conflict Freud claimed that at each stage, demands of reality conflict with source of pleasure Adult personality depends on how person deals with the conflict ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Psychodynamic Revisionists
Criticisms of Freud: too much emphasis on sexuality first 5 years are not as important ego and conscious thought more important sociocultural factors more important ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Horney’s Sociocultural Theory
Karen Horney (1885–1952) developed first feminist criticism of Freud’s theory Need for security is most important ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Horney’s Sociocultural Theory
People develop strategies to cope with anxiety: move toward people, seeking love and support move away from people, becoming more independent move against people, being competitive and domineering The secure person uses these ways of coping in moderation The insecure person uses one or more strategies in exaggerated fashion ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Jung’s Analytical Theory
Carl Jung (1875–1961) thought Freud underplayed unconscious mind Collective unconscious - impersonal, deepest layer of unconscious mind, shared by all human beings Archetypes - emotionally-laden ideas and images in collective unconscious that have meaning for all people ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Adler’s Individual Psychology
Alfred Adler (1870–1937) People strive toward creating own goals Emphasis on social motivation Everyone strives for superiority Compensation - individual attempts to overcome inferiorities or weaknesses by developing own abilities Overcompensation - individual exaggerates to conceal a weakness ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Adjustment Strategies Based on Psychodynamic Approaches
1. Think about your experiences as a child and now 2. Recognize you have unconscious feelings, drives, and desires 3. Examine your thoughts, feelings, and behavior to determine extent you are using defense mechanisms 4. Evaluate extent to which security needs are met 5. Examine feelings of superiority or inferiority and discover areas of life in which you can excel ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Evaluating Psychodynamic Perspectives
view personality as primarily unconscious stress that personality develops in stages emphasize the role of the individual’s past experiences emphasize mental representation and transformation of experience emphasize the influence of conflict on personality ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Evaluating Psychodynamic Perspectives
Weaknesses of the psychodynamic perspectives include: difficulty of testing its concepts too much emphasis on sexuality and unconscious mind negative view of human nature too much attention to early experience male, Western bias ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES
Classical Conditioning Skinner’s Behaviorism Social Cognitive Theory Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Perspectives ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning = learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with meaningful stimulus and acquires capacity to elicit a response similar to response to meaningful stimulus ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Classical Conditioning
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1906) argued classical conditioning consists of: unconditioned stimulus unconditioned response conditioned stimulus conditioned response Classical conditioning has been applied to understanding fear ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Figure 2.6 Classical Conditioning: Boss’s Criticism and High Blood Pressure

Skinner’s Behaviorism
B. F. Skinner (1938–1990) argued that our actions on the environment have consequences that shape our behavior Operant conditioning = learning process that occurs when consequences of the behavior change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Reinforcement and Extinction
Reinforcement = process by which a stimulus or event that follows a behavior increases probability that the behavior will occur again Positive reinforcement - frequency of behavior increases because it is followed by rewarding stimulus Negative reinforcement - frequency of behavior increases because it is followed by removal of an aversive stimulus ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Reinforcement and Extinction
Extinction - frequency of a previously reinforced behavior that is no longer reinforced decreases ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Punishment Punishment decreases likelihood that a behavior will occur
Positive punishment - behavior decreases when followed by unpleasant stimulus Negative punishment - behavior decreases when positive stimulus is removed ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Figure 2.7 Positive and Negative Reinforcement, Positive and Negative Punishment

Applying Skinner’s Approach to Personality
Skinner’s behaviorism emphasizes that cognition is unimportant in personality Personality is observable behavior, which is influenced by rewards and punishments in the environment In the behavioral view, personality often varies according to the situation ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Social Cognitive Theory
Social cognitive theory was first proposed by Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel Social cognitive theory states that behavior, environment, and cognitive factors are important in understanding personality ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Observational Learning
Observational learning (imitation or modeling) = learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates someone else’s behavior Bandura (1986) identified four main processes: retention production attention reinforcement ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Observational Learning
Bandura’s 1965 classic study - children who had seen a model punished for aggression only showed the model’s aggression when offered a reward Reciprocal determination - Bandura’s view that behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors interact to create personality ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Personal Control Social cognitive theorists emphasize that adjustment can be measured by people’s belief in their capacity to exercise some control over their own functioning and over environmental events ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Personal Control Three aspects of personal control:
delay of gratification - deferring immediate gratification to obtain desirable future outcome self-efficacy - belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes locus of control - belief that the outcomes of people’s actions depend on what they do (internal locus) or on events outside of their personal control (external locus) ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Personal Control - Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is related to positive developments in people’s lives Self-efficacy helps people in unsatisfactory situations by encouraging them to believe that they can succeed Having an internal locus of control is associated with positive functioning and adjustment ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Adjustment Strategies For Increasing Your Self-Efficacy
1. Select something you expect to be able to do, not something you expect to fail at accomplishing 2. Distinguish between past performance and your present project 3. Pay close attention to your successes 4. Keep written records so that you will be concretely aware of your successes 5. List the specific kinds of situations in which you expect to have the most difficulty and the least difficulty ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Adjustment Strategies Based on Behavior and Social Cognitive Perspectives
1. Recognize extent to which reinforcement and punishment influence your behavior 2. Examine extent to which you use reinforcement and punishment when interacting with others 3. Use your ability to learn through observation 4. Consider obtaining a mentor 5. Evaluate how good you are at delaying gratification 6. Examine whether you have an internal or an external locus of control ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Perspectives
Strengths of the behavioral and social cognitive perspectives include emphasis on: environmental determinants scientific climate for investigating personality ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Perspectives
The behavioral view has been criticized for: taking the “person” out of personality ignoring cognition inadequate attention to individual differences inadequate attention to biology inadequate attention to personality as whole ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVES
Rogers’ Approach Maslow’s Approach Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Humanistic Perspectives
Humanistic perspectives - stress a person’s capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose one’s own destiny, and positive human qualities Carl Rogers (1902–1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) were leading architects of humanistic perspectives ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Rogers’ Approach Carl Rogers stressed the importance of becoming a fully-functioning person Rogers believed the tendency to actualize one’s essential nature is inborn in every person ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Rogers’ Approach Self-concept - refers to individuals’ overall perceptions and assessments of their abilities, behavior, and personalities The Self - consists of our self-perceptions and the values we attach to these perceptions The greater the discrepancy between the real self (self resulting from experiences) and the ideal self (the self we would like to be), the more maladjusted we will be ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Unconditional Positive Regard, Empathy, and Genuineness
Rogers proposed 3 methods to help others develop a more positive self-concept: Unconditional positive regard - accepting, valuing, and being positive toward another person regardless of the person’s behavior Empathetic - being a sensitive listener and understanding of another’s true feelings Genuineness - being open with our feelings and dropping our pretenses and facades ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Adjustment Strategies for Becoming a Fully-Functioning Person
1. Take a positive approach to life and believe in your capacity for positive growth 2. Be open to experience 3. Don’t be overly defensive 4. Develop a more positive self-concept 5. Have harmonious relationships with others ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Maslow’s Approach Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs states that individuals’ needs are satisfied in this sequence: physiological safety love and belongingness esteem self-actualization Self-actualization = highest need that involves motivation to develop one’s full potential as a human being ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Figure 2.9 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Adjustment Strategies for Becoming Self-Actualized
1. Be motivated to change 2. Be responsible 3. Evaluate your motives 4. Examine your positive emotional experience 5. Have a mission in life 6. Monitor your progress ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives
The humanistic perspectives stress a person’s capacity for personal growth and freedom These perspectives emphasize the importance of: our perceptions conscious experience the positive aspects of human nature encourage excessive self-love ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives
Weaknesses of humanistic perspectives include tendency to: avoid empirical research be too optimistic ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Trait Theories Traits - broad, enduring dispositions that lead to characteristic responses Gordon Allport believed that each individual has a unique set of personality traits Most trait theories hold that personality can be described in terms of a few supertraits or dimensions ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Trait Theories Hans Eysenck - three dimensions of personality:
introversion-extraversion stability-instability (neuroticism) psychoticism ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

The Big Five Personality Factors
openness to experience conscientiousness extraversion agreeableness neuroticism (emotional stability) Big five traits show up in personality assessments in cultures around the world ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Figure 2.12 The Big Five Factors of Personality

Traits, Situations, and Culture
Walter Mischel (1968) argued that personality varies across situations more than trait theorists acknowledged Mischel’s view is called situationism Personality results from interaction of traits and situations Cross-cultural research suggests that traits may vary across cultures ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Traits, Situations, and Culture
Cultures around the world may be classified as individualist or collectivist Individualism gives priority to personal goals rather than group goals; it emphasizes values that serve the self, such as feeling good, personal achievement and distinction, and independence Collectivism emphasizes values that serve the group by subordinating personal goals to preserve group integrity and relationships ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Adjustment Strategies for Interacting with People from Individualist Cultures
1. Compliment the individual more than you are used to in your collectivist culture 2. Expect the person to be more competitive than people in your collectivist culture 3. Feel free to talk about your accomplishments 4. Expect that someone from an individualist culture will not be as attached to extended family as you are 5. Do not expect the person to give a high priority to consensus ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Adjustment Strategies for Interacting with People from Collectivist Cultures
1. Pay attention to the person’s group memberships 2. Do not provoke competitive situations 3. If you have to criticize the collectivist, do so only in private, not in front of other people 4. Cultivate long-term relationships ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Evaluating Trait Perspectives
Understanding a person’s traits also may help us better predict the person’s health, thinking, job success, and interpersonal skills Personality is determined by a combination of traits (person factors) and the situation (environmental factors) ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Types of Assessment Psychologists use assessments not only in research but also in their attempts to diagnose, treat, and counsel people Scientific measures aim to be both reliable and valid ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Types of Assessment Types of assessments used by psychologists:
projective tests self-report tests behavioral and cognitive assessments ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Projective Tests Projective tests - present individuals with ambiguous stimuli Projective tests assume that this ambiguity allows individuals to project their personalities onto the stimuli Examples of projective tests include: Rorschach inkblot test Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Rorschach Inkblot Test
Rorschach Inkblot Test was developed in 1921 by Herman Rorschach It uses individual’s perception of inkblots to determine personality Concerns about test’s reliability and validity ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Figure 2.13 Type of Stimulus Used in the Rorschach Inkblot Test

Thematic Apperception Test
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - projective test designed to elicit stories that reveal something about individual’s personality TAT used in clinical practice and in research on need for achievement ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Self-Report Tests Self-report tests (objective tests or inventories) assess personality traits by asking questions about preferences and behaviors Self-report tests may elicit deceptive responses when people try to answer in a socially desirable way ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Self-Report Tests Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely used self-report personality test Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI) are two popular self-report tests that assess the big five factors ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Behavioral and Cognitive Assessment
Most personality assessments were designed to measure stable, enduring aspects of personality Behavioral assessment consists of direct observations of behavior and its environmental ties Cognitive assessment seeks information about an individual’s cognitive processes through interviews and questionnaires ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

Human Adjustment Personality Chapter 2: McGraw-Hill

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