1. Ch. 5: Methods for Looking Within Ourselves

2. Self-Report Measures
Self-report measures enable researchers to make observations of subjective issues.
e.g., participants’ attitudes, feelings, perceptions, beliefs, etc.
Standardized measures are developed and administered according to certain rules.

3. Three Important Issues
How dependable are the self-report data?
Problem of evaluation apprehension
What are the ethical implications associated with self-report methods?
How valid and reliable are self-report data as compared to other behavioral data?

4. Open Versus Closed Questions
Open-ended questions offer the opportunity to express one’s feelings and impressions spontaneously.
Fixed-choice measures specify the options for how one is to express these feelings and impressions.

5. Advantages of Open-Ended Questions
They do not lead respondents by suggesting specific answers.
They represent an exploratory approach.
They allow respondents to answer in their own language.
They make it easier to create a rapport between the researcher and the respondent.

6. Disadvantages of Open-Ended Questions
They can be time-consuming.
They invite rambling and off-the-mark responses.
Assessments of reliability can be difficult.

7. Measures of Personality
Projective tests examples
Rorschach Test
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Fixed-choice example
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

8. Rating Scales: Important Considerations
How are individual scores to be interpreted?
Are there norm-referenced values?
How is the questionnaire constructed?

9. Constructing a Questionnaire: Minimal Considerations
The items must adequately sample the “universe of content.”
The items must be easily understood.
Can be assessed through pilot-testing.
Are individuals responding to the items in the manner intended?
Also can be assessed through pilot-testing.

10. Numerical Scales Respondent works with a sequence of defined numbers
Implicit example:
My mind goes blank, and I am unable to think clearly when working with math (check one).
_____ strongly disagree
_____ disagree
_____ undecided
_____ agree
_____ strongly agree

11. Numerical Scale: Explicit Example
My mind goes blank, and I am unable to think clearly when working with math (circle one).
-2 strongly disagree
-1 disagree
0 undecided
+1 agree
+2 strongly agree

12. Forced Choice Scales
Pushes or “forces” the respondent to make definite rather than neutral statements
Example:
Circle the two characteristics that best describe how you feel in your work:
Rewarded relaxed appreciated trusting

13. Graphic Scales: Straight Line Example
Rate yourself using the following scale:
Unpopular ____________________ Popular
Shy ____________________ Outgoing
Solitary ____________________ Gregarious X X X

14. Graphic Scales: Segmented Line Example
Rate yourself using the following scale:
Unpopular __:___:___:___:___:___:___ Popular
Shy __:___:___:___:___:___:___ Outgoing
Solitary __:___:___:___:___:___:___ Gregarious X X X

15. Rating Errors Halo Effect Leniency Bias Central Tendency Bias
Logical Error in Rating
Acquiescent Response Set
“yea-sayers”

16. Semantic Differential Method
Method developed to study attitudes about the subjective meaning of things.
Ratings made on three primary dimensions of subjective meaning:
Evaluation
Potency
Activity

17. Example of Instructions for the Semantic Differential

18. The Likert Scale
Provides a one-dimensional picture of attitudes on controversial issues.
Developed using the summated ratings method.
The term “Likert items” is misleading if summated ratings method is not used.
Score is determined by summing the responses.

19. Likert Scale Example: Socialized Medicine Attitude Scale

20. The Thurstone Scale
Developed using the method of equal-appearing intervals.
Judges sort large number of statements into 11 piles that are psychologically equidistant.
Scale values calculated for each statement.
Most consistent or representative statements are chosen for the final scale.

21. Thurstone Scale Example: Attitudes Toward War Scale

22. Scale Values for Each Statement in War Scale

23. Why Pilot-Test the Questionnaire?
Are the items worded properly?
Do the items lead to unrealistically narrow answers?
Are the questions leading?
Pilot-testing also provides an opportunity for exploratory questions.

24. Advantages of Questionnaires
Can efficiently be administered to large numbers of people.
Are relatively economical.
Provides a type of “anonymity.”

25. Advantages of Face-to-Face Interviews
Provides an opportunity to establish a rapport and trust with the respondent.
Important when probing sensitive areas.
Provides an opportunity to clarify questions, if necessary.
Allows flexibility in determining the wording and sequencing of questions.

26. Steps in Developing An Interview Schedule
Identify the objectives for the interview.
Formulate a recruitment strategy.
Determine the structure of the interview schedule.
Give careful consideration to the sequencing of questions.
Pilot test the interview schedule.

27. Telephone Interviews Advantages Disadvantages
Allows for a quick turn-around.
Refusal rates may be lower.
Disadvantages
Interviewing restricted to only households have a phone and that answer the phone.
Fewer, and less probing questions can be asked.
Respondents more impatient to conclude a telephone interview.

28. Behavioral Diaries
Inaccurate answers often a problem when respondents must rely on memory.
To minimize this problem, respondents are asked to keep behavioral diaries of certain events at the time that they occur.

29. Example of a Behavioral Diary
A week in the life of one teenage subject