1. Collecting Data by Communication
Chapter 12

2. Measurement
“rules for assigning numbers to objects in such a way as to represent quantities of attributes”
Marketers are interested in measuring many attributes that most people rarely think in terms of numbers.
There are four types of scales used to measure attributes of objects:

3. Scales of Measurement Ratio Interval Ordinal Nominal
HIGHER
Higher levels of measurement have all the properties of lower levels of measurement.

4. NOMINAL SCALE: measurement in which numbers are assigned to objects solely for the purpose of identification
Basic Measures of
Comparisons Examples Average
Identity male-female mode (the
most frequently
occurring category)
user-nonuser
occupations
Which of the following soft drinks do you like? Check all that apply.
 Coca-Cola  Mountain Dew Seven Up Dr. Pepper  Pepsi Sprite

5. Comparisons Examples Average Order brand preference median
Ordinal Scale: measurement in which numbers are assigned to data on the basis of some order (more than, greater than) of the objects
Basic Measures of
Comparisons Examples Average
Order brand preference median
social class
hardness of minerals
lumber quality grades
Rank the following soft drinks from 1 (least liked) to 6 (most liked):
___Coca-Cola ___Mountain Dew ___Seven Up
___Dr. Pepper ___Pepsi ___Sprite

6. Comparisons Examples Average Comparison temperature mean
Interval Scale: measurement in which the assigned numbers allow the comparison of the size of the differences among and between numbers
Basic Measures of
Comparisons Examples Average
Comparison temperature mean
of intervals grade point avg.
brand attitude
company image
What is your overall opinion about each of these brands?
unfavorable favorable
Coca-Cola
Dr. Pepper
Pepsi
Sprite

7. Comparisons Examples Average Comparison units sold geometric
Ratio Scale: measurement that has a natural, or absolute, zero and therefore allows the comparison of absolute magnitudes of the numbers. Zero means that none of the property being measured exists.
Basic Measures of
Comparisons Examples Average
Comparison units sold geometric
of absolute # of purchases mean
magnitudes age
income
Divide 100 points among these soft drinks according to your likelihood of purchasing each within the next week:
___Coca-Cola ___Mountain Dew ___Seven Up
___Dr. Pepper ___Pepsi ___Sprite

8. Methods for Assessing Attitude
Observation of Behavior A
Indirect Techniques (projective methods)
Performance of Objective Tasks
Self-Report Techniques
Physiological Reactions
(Voice-pitch, galvanic skin response)

9. Measuring Attitudes and Other Unobservable Concepts
Three General Types of Self-Report Attitude Scales (A method of assessing attitudes in which individuals are asked directly for their beliefs about or feelings toward an object or class of objects)
1. Itemized-Ratings Scales
2. Graphic-Ratings Scales
3. Comparative-Ratings Scales

10. 1. Itemized-Ratings Scales Summated Ratings (Likert) Scale
A self-report technique for attitude measurement in which the subjects are asked to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a number of statements.
An individual’s attitude score is the total obtained by summing (or averaging) over the items in the scale.

11. Example of Likert (Summated-Ratings) Scale
Neither
Agree nor
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
The celebrity endorser is trustworthy.
The celebrity endorser is unattractive.
The celebrity endorser is an expert on the product.
The celebrity endorser is not knowledgeable about the product.

12. Example of Itemized Rating Scale
Please evaluate each of the following attributes of compact disc players according to how important the attribute is to you personally by checking the appropriate box.
Not Somewhat Fairly Extremely Important Important Important Important
Sound Quality
Physical Size
Brand Name
Durability

13. Itemized-Ratings Scales Semantic-Differential Scale
A self-report technique for attitude measurement in which respondents are asked to check which cell between a set of bipolar adjectives or phrases best describes their feelings toward the object.

14. Example of Semantic-Differential Scale
Le Bron – Nike
Tiger Woods – Nike
Knowledgeable
Not :
Not Expert
Expert
Attractive
Unattractive
Trustworthy

15. Semantic Differential Scale
LeBron
Tiger Woods
Trustworthy
Not
Trustworthy x o x o
Attractive
Unattractive x o
Expert
Not Expert
Not
Knowledgeable x o
Knowledgeable

16. 2. Graphic rating scales
Raters indicate their rating by placing a check at the appropriate point on a line that runs from one extreme of the attribute to the other
The score is assessed by measuring the length of the line from one end to the marked position

17. Example of Graphic Rating Scale
Please evaluate each of the following attributes of compact disc players according to how important the attribute is to you personally by placing an “X” at the position on the horizontal line that most accurately reflects your feelings.
Attribute Not Important Important
Sound Quality
Physical Size
Brand Name
Durability

18. Comparative Rating Scale
Respondents are asked to judge each attribute with direct reference to the other attributes being evaluated

19. Comparative Rating Scale
Please divide 100 points between the following attributes of compact disc players according to the relative importance of each attribute to you.
Sound Quality
Physical Size
Brand Name
Durability
points

20. Interpreting Rating Scales: Raw Scores vs. Norms
A service provider received an average score of 5.13 on a 1-7 service quality scale, where 1 = “much less than I expected” and 7 = “much more than I expected.”
Is this score good or bad?

21. Interpreting Rating Scales: Raw Scores vs. Norms
Would your answer change if you knew that 75% of similar service providers posted higher scores than 5.13?
It is very difficult to interpret a rating scale score using only the score itself and the scale on which it was obtained to provide meaning. A comparative standard, or norm, is needed.

22. Interpreting Rating Scales: Raw Scores vs. Norms
Population-based norms give meaning to scores by comparing them to scores obtained by similar entities
Time-based norms track scores for an entity over time and they are useful for tracking progress and identifying problem area

23. Other Considerations in Designing Scales
Reverse Scaling
Response set bias when respondents begin to answer all the questions in a similar way due to boredom or lack of attention
Number of Items in a Scale
If an overall summary judgment is needed: global measure
If more information about how various aspects of the phenomenon are viewed by respondents: composite measures
More items are better than fewer items
Number of Scale Positions
Scales with 5-9 positions are used routinely in marketing research
Including a “Don’t Know” Category
Use when high percentage of respondents are likely not to have encountered or thought about the object or issue in the study
Determining Which Type of Scale to Use
Let common sense guide your choice. Some cultures may not be familiar with these scales.

24. Establishing the Validity and Reliability of Measures

25. SYSTEMATIC ERROR RANDOM ERROR
Error in measurement that is also known as constant error since it affects the measurement in a constant way.
RANDOM ERROR
Error in measurement due to temporary aspects of the person or measurement situation that affects the measurement in irregular ways.

26. RANDOM SYSTEMATIC
ERROR ERROR

27. RELIABILITY
Ability of a measure to obtain similar scores for the same object, trait, or construct across time, across different evaluators, or across the items forming the measure.
VALIDITY
The extent to which differences in scores on a measuring instrument reflect true differences among individuals, groups, or situations in the characteristic that it seeks to measure or true differences in the same individual, group, or situation from one occasion to another, rather than systematic or random errors.

28. Unreliable Reliable Reliable Not Valid Not Valid Valid

29. A measure can be reliable but not valid
A measure can be reliable but not valid. A valid measure must be reliable.