1. RESEARCH METHODS Lecture 30

2. DATA TRANSFORMATION

3. Data transformation The process of changing data from original form to a form that is more suitable to perform data analysis. Data conversion Changing the original form of the data to a new format More appropriate data analysis New variables

4. Data conversion The process of changing data from original form to a form that is more suitable to perform data analysis. Researchers modify the values. From date of birth calculate the age. Subtract the birth year from the current year. Call it data conversion

5. Reducing the categories Collapsing or combining categories of a variable. Strongly agree + Agree = 1 Undecided = 2 Disagree + Strongly= 3 disagree Reducing from 5 categories to 3 categories

6. Creating New Variables Creating new variable by re-specifying the data numeric or logical transformation e.g. Summative score = var1 + var2 + var3

7. Transformation Measurement of social phenomenon. Some can be measured directly (family income) Some others require the use of surrogates or proxies (job satisfaction). Also draw upon others’ measures, already developed. Modify according to need.

8. Indexes and Scales Indexes and scales often used interchangeably. Scale is a measure to capture the intensity, direction, level, or potency of a variable. Arranges responses on a continuum. A scale can use single indicator or multiple indicators. Ordinal level. Index is a measure in which researcher adds or combines several distinct indicators of a construct into a single score. Composite score.

9. Scales and indexes combined Combine the features of scales and indexes in a single measure. Several indicators that are scales. Add these indicators to yield a single score.

10. Uni-dimensionality All items in a scale or index fit together i.e. measure a single construct. Combine several specific pieces of information into a single score or measure. All pieces measure the same construct (each sub-dimension is part of the construct’s overall content)

11. Examples Feminist ideology: ideology about gender. It is an abstract and general construct. Includes specific beliefs and attitudes towards social, economic, political, family, sexual relations. All 5 areas are part of single general construct. Parts are dimensions. Parts mutually reinforcing and together form a system of beliefs about dignity, strengths and power of women.

12. Index Construction Index is combination of items into a single numerical score. Various components or subgroups of a construct are each measured, then combined into one measure. Example of consumer price index (CPI): CPI is created by totaling the cost of buying a list of goods and services (food, rent, utilities). Compare this cost with previous year. May indicate inflation.

13. Many types of indexes Exam with 25 MCQ. Total number of correct answers is a kind of index – a composite measure in which each question measures a small piece of knowledge. All questions scored correct or incorrect are totaled to produce a single measure.

14. Occupational rating index Answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to the seven questions that follow on the characteristics of an occupation (truck driver, medical doctor, accountant, telephone operator). Score 1 for yes and 0 for no.

15. 1. Does it pay good salary? 2. Is the job secure from layoffs or unemployment? 3. Is thee work interesting and challenging? 4. Are its working conditions (e.g. hours, safety, utilities) good? 5. Are there opportunities for career advancement and promotion? 6. Is it prestigious or looked up-to by others? 7. Does it permit self-direction and the freedom to make decisions? The seven questions are our operational definition of the construct good occupation

16. Rating index Total the 7 answers for each of the four occupations. Which occupation had the highest and the lowest score? Measure the parts of a construct with multiple indicators.

17. Face Validity of items Every item in the index should have face validity. Each part of the construct should be measured with at least one indicator. Better to measure the parts of a construct with multiple indicators.

18. Example of college quality index Dimension of quality college: Fewer students per faculty member, A highly educated faculty, More books in library, Fewer students dropping out of college, More students go to advanced degrees, Faculty members publish research papers. Score 100 college on each item, then ad the score for each to create an index score of college quality

19. Combine the score index for a dimension Add a sub-index on teaching quality. The index contain 8 elements: Average size of classes; Percentage of class time devoted to discussion Number of different classes a teacher teaches; Availability of faculty to students outside class; Currency amount of readings assigned; Degree to which the faculty get to know each student; Student ratings of instruction.

20. College quality index Similar sub-index measures can be created for other parts of college quality index. Combine all into a more global measure of college quality. Measures the definition of a construct “quality of college”

21. Weighting – important issue Whether or not to weight each item. Unless otherwise stated, assume that an index is un- weighted. Un-weighted index gives equal weight to each item. Add up the items without modification

22. Scoring Remember the measurement of job satisfaction. (dimensions and elements). Number of statements on each element. Likert scale (5) response categories: Strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, s. disagree. There are positive and negative statements. For positive statements, score S. agree = 5, agree = 4, neutral = 3, disagree = 2, s. disagree = 1. For negative statements reverse the scoring.

23. No.StatementsS. Agree AgreeUndecidedDisagreeS. Disagree 1I have a good opportunity for advancement in my job √ 2I feel very comfortable with my co-workers √ 3My pay is adequate to meet my necessary expenses √ 4My work gives me a sense of accomplishment √ 5My boss is impolite and cold√ 6My job is a dead-end job√ 7The company of my co-workers is boring √ 8Pay at my level is less as compared to other organizations √

24. No. Statements S. Agree Agree UndecidedDisagree S. Disagree 1I have a good opportunity for advancement in my job √5√5 2I feel very comfortable with my co-workers √5√5 3My pay is adequate to meet my necessary expenses √4√4 4My work gives me a sense of accomplishment √2√2 5My boss is impolite and cold√3√3 6My job is a dead-end job√ 5 7The company of my co- workers is boring √5√5 8Pay at my level is less as compared to other organizations √2√2

25. Score Index There were 23 statements for different elements. On each statement a person could get a score of 1 to 5. Total score for a person could range from a minimum of (23 X 1=) 23 to a maximum of (23 X 5 =) 115. Lower score indicating low job satisfaction and high score as high job satisfaction

26. Use of score index Different variables can have different score indexes. Use raw score indexes and apply appropriate statistics for testing the hypothesis. Can also divide score index into different categories like high job satisfaction and low job satisfaction. Cross-classify with some other variable, apply appropriate statistics and test the hypothesis.