1. II Speech sounds

2. Speech production and perception
transmitted
Speech production (move the organs) >>>>>>
>>>>>> speech perception (hearing the sounds)
---Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds
---Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech
---Auditory phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds.

3. Speech organs Lungs, trachea([动]气管), throat, nose, mouth.
Mouth: tongue, palate([解]上腭)
Throat: pharynx([解]咽), larynx([解] 喉), vocal folds (vocal cords[解]声带)
Airstream(lung)>>Bronchioles([解]细支气管) & bronchi([医]支气管)>>trachea>>pulmonic sound (肺闭塞音)
The vocal folds apart—voiceless [p,s,t]
The vocal folds close together—voiced [b,z,d]
The vocal folds totally closed [?]

4. mouth Upper lip Upper teeth Alveolar(齿槽)ridge Hard palate
Soft palate (velum【解剖学】 软腭)
Uvula([解] 小舌)
Lower lip Lower teeth
Tongue Mandible(下颚, 下颚骨)
Tongue: tip, blade, front, back, root

5. consonants
Sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity
Factors to distinguish between consonants
--manners of articulation: The actual relationship between articulators and the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract
--places of articulation: Where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air.

6. manners of articulation:
Stop (爆破音plosive): [p, b; t, d; k, g] [m, n]
Fricative(摩擦音): [f,v; s,z] this, through, share, genre
Median approximation: [w, j]
Lateral (边音，旁流音approximant): [l]
Affricate(塞擦音): church

7. places of articulation:
Bilabial(双唇音):[p,b,m]
Labiodental(唇齿音): this, through
Alveolar(齿槽音): [t,d; n, s,z; l]
Postal veolar (后齿龈音):share, genre
Retroflex(卷舌音): [r]
Palatal(上腭音): [j]
Velar([语]软颚音): [k,g]
Uvular(小舌音): richtich
The consonants of English:
[p] voiceless bilabial stop

8. vowels
The sound produced without any obstruction so the turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived
--Semi-vowels, or semi-consonants [w,j]
The criteria of vowel description
--The part of the tongue that is raised (front, center, back)
--The extent to which the tongue raises in the direction of the palate (high, mid, low)
--The opening made at the lips(rounding, unrounding of the lips)

9. vowels The theory of cardinal vowels: 8 vowels
Secondary: another 8 vowels
Vowel glides
Pure or monophthong(单元音):the quality of the vowel remain constant throughout the articulation
Diphthong(双重元音): a single movement of the tongue is involved in the production of a vowel [ai]
Triphthong: a double movement of the tongue involved in the production of a vowel [tower]

10. Phonetics and Pronunciation
IPA:International Phonetic Alphabet
RP:Received Pronunciation
Tense vowel—lax vowel [i:, i]
Thus, a vowel can be described as:
[i:] high, front, tense, unrounded vowel
[u:] high, front, tense, rounded vowel

11. Coarticulation and transcrition
When simultaneous or overlapping articulation are involved, there is coarticulation
--Lamb (a sound becomes more like the following sound—anticipatory coarticulation)
--Map (a sound becomes more like the preceding sound—perseverative coarticulation)
Transcription:
--narrow transcription (the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic details)
--Broad transcrption (the use of a simple set of symbols in our description of a sound)
Peak---speak

12. Suprasegmental features超语段特征
--those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments
Syllable
Stress
Tone
intonation

13. Syllable Monosyllabic (mean, dog, cat)
Polysyllabic (interesting, excellent)
Syllabic structure
syllable
onset rhyme(nucleus) coda
(onset) Rhyme(Coda)
cat clean crisp
Open syllable (a syllable without coda)
Closed syllable (a syllable with coda)
( ( (C) C) C ) V ( ( ( ( C) C) C) C) sixths string
(C)V (C ) mang, man

14. Sinority scale
What governs the arrangement of different classes of sounds in the syllable.
Sinority scale: vowel > approximants > nasals > fricatives > stops
Clasp lcaps

15. Syllabification and the maximal onset principle
The Maximal Onset Principle: the requirement that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.
coun-try princ-
iple.

16. Stress:the degree of force used in producing a syllable
At the word level, it only applies to words with at least two syllables (word, happy)
At the sentence level, a monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relative to other words in the sentence. ( He went there)
Stress in English may change meanings ( produce / produce, black board / blackboard, black bird / blackbird)

17. Primary stresses (the more stressed syllable)
secondary stresses (the less stressed syllable)
--Phenomenal transportation
Sentence stress
--John flew to New York yesterday.

18. Phonological study
Phonology is the study of the sound system of languages. It is concerned with the linguistic patterns of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.

19. Minimal pairs
The pair of sounds where the replacement of one by another would produce a change in meaning of the word concerned.
Pit / put, bit /pit, bit/ but
By using the minimal pair test, we can identify some important units in a language which can signify a difference in meaning, thus they are recognized as the phonemes, that is, the unit of explicit sound contrast..

20. The phoneme theory
The word phoneme refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast, therefore, the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrast.
BY selecting one type of sound instead of another we can distinguish one word from another.
Language differ in the selection of contrastive sounds: speak / peak, dada /date

21. Allophones (the variants of a phoneme)
Speak / peak (allophones of the same phoneme /p/. Allophones should be in complementary distribution.
The phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation. (deal /lead)

22. allophones
Not all the phones in complementary distribution are allophones of the same phoneme. There are restriction: the phones must be phonetically similar and in complementary distribution.
Phonetic similarity: speak/ peak, voiceless bilabial stops (aspiration); deal / lead, lateral approximants (place of articulation)
Free variants ( dialect, habit, individual preference)

23. Phonological processes
Assimilation (a process by which one sound becomes more like the neighboring one)
Nasalization (cap / can )
Dentalization (tent / tenth)
Velarization (since/ sink)
Devoicing (five past, love to)
Regressive assimilation (a following sound influences the preceding one)
Progressive assimilation ( a preceding sound influences the following one)

24. Phonological process
A process in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environment or context.
Any phonological process must have three aspects to it (1) a set of sounds to undergo the process; (2) a set of sounds produced by the process); (3) a set of situation in which the process applies
Voiced fricative voiceless / ___voiceless
/v/ [f]: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.
Epenthesis: a an: an hour, an apple

25. Plural forms of English nouns
Sibilants: see, zero, share, genre, chair, jump
/s/ appears after voiceless sounds
/z/ appears after voiced sounds
/ez/ appears after sibilants
/z/ is the basic form, thus, underlying form or underlying representation, whereas /s/ and /ez/ are the derived form, thus surface form or surface representation.

26. Rule ordering z s / [-voice, C] ____ (devoicing)
o e / sibilant ____z (epenthesis)
si:t +z bed+z keis+z
s N/A s devoicing
N/A N/A N/A epenthesis
si:ts bedz keiss
N/A N/A e epenthesis
s N/A N/A devoicing
si:ts bedz keises

27. Distinctive features
Distinctive features refer to those features which can distinguish one phoneme from another.
Many of the distinctive features are binary features. [-voiced] [+voiced]
/p/ [-voiced]
/b/ [+voiced]