1. Glucose is an indispensable metabolite ● The brain requires at least ~50% of its calories in the form of glucose ● Red blood cells exclusively subsist on glucose ● Glucose is a precursor of other sugars needed in the biosynthesis of nucleotides, glycoproteins, and glycolipids ● Glucose is needed to replenish NADPH, which supplies reducing power for biosynthesis and detoxification

2. © Michael Palmer 2014

3. The pyruvate carboxylase reaction © Michael Palmer 2014

4. The active site of E. coli biotin carboxylase © Michael Palmer 2014

5. Activation of bicarbonate and carboxylation of biotin © Michael Palmer 2014

6. The carboxylation of pyruvate © Michael Palmer 2014

7. The phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase reaction © Michael Palmer 2014

8. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase and glucose-6- phosphatase © Michael Palmer 2014

9. Energy balance of gluconeogenesis © Michael Palmer 2014

10. Mitochondrial substrate transport in gluconeogenesis © Michael Palmer 2014

11. Ethanol degradation inhibits gluconeogenesis © Michael Palmer 2014

12. Simultaneous activity of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis creates futile cycles © Michael Palmer 2014

13. Glucose phosphorylation cycling involves two separate compartments © Michael Palmer 2014

14. Allosteric regulation limits fructose-6-phosphate phosphorylationcycling © Michael Palmer 2014

15. Hormonal control of phosphofructokinase andfructose-1,6-bisphosphatase © Michael Palmer 2014

16. The secondary messengers cAMP and fructose-2,6- bisphosphate © Michael Palmer 2014

17. Regulation of pyruvate kinase ● allosteric inhibition by ATP ● allosteric activation by alanine and fructose-1,6-bisphosphate ● inhibition by PKA-mediated phosphorylation