The Analysis of Competitive Markets

Name: The Analysis of Competitive Markets
Uploaded: 2017-08-29T05:26:30+00:00
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Description: The Analysis of Competitive Markets

The Analysis of Competitive Markets
Chapter 9 The Analysis of Competitive Markets 1

Topics to be Discussed Evaluating the Gains and Losses from Government Policies--Consumer and Producer Surplus The Efficiency of a Competitive Market Minimum Prices Chapter 9 2

Topics to be Discussed Price Supports and Production Quotas
Import Quotas and Tariffs The Impact of a Tax or Subsidy Chapter 9 3

Evaluating the Gains and Losses from Government Policies--Consumer and Producer Surplus
Review Consumer surplus is the total benefit or value that consumers receive beyond what they pay for the good. Producer surplus is the total benefit or revenue that producers receive beyond what it cost to produce a good. Chapter 9 5

Consumer and Producer Surplus
Price Consumer Surplus D 10 7 Consumer B Consumer A Between 0 and Q0 consumers A and B receive a net gain from buying the product-- consumer surplus S 5 Q0 Consumer C Producer Surplus Between 0 and Q0 producers receive a net gain from selling each product-- producer surplus. Quantity 9

Evaluating the Gains and Losses from Government Policies--Consumer and Producer Surplus
To determine the welfare effect of a governmental policy we can measure the gain or loss in consumer and producer surplus. Welfare Effects Gains and losses caused by government intervention in the market. Chapter 9 10

Change in Consumer and Producer Surplus from Price Controls
Pmax Q1 Q2 Suppose the government imposes a price ceiling Pmax which is below the market-clearing price P0. Price S D The loss to producers is the sum of rectangle A and triangle C. Triangle B and C together measure the deadweight loss. B A C The gain to consumers is the difference between the rectangle A and the triangle B. Deadweight Loss P0 Q0 Chapter 9 Quantity 13

Observations: The total loss is equal to area B + C. The total change in surplus = (A - B) + (-A - C) = -B - C The deadweight loss is the inefficiency of the price controls or the loss of the producer surplus exceeds the gain from consumer surplus. Chapter 9 14

Observation Consumers can experience a net loss in consumer surplus when the demand is sufficiently inelastic Chapter 9 15

Effect of Price Controls When Demand Is Inelastic
B A Pmax C Q1 If demand is sufficiently inelastic, triangle B can be larger than rectangle A and the consumer suffers a net loss from price controls. Example Oil price controls and gasoline shortages in 1979 Price S D P0 Q2 Quantity Chapter 9 17

Price Controls and Natural Gas Shortages
1975 Price controls created a shortage of natural gas. What was the deadweight loss? Chapter 9 18

Data for 1975 Supply: QS = PG PO Quantity supplied in trillion cubic feet (Tcf) Demand: QD = -5PG PO Quantity demanded (Tcf) PG = price of natural gas in $/mcf and PO = price of oil in $/b. Chapter 9 19

Data for 1975 PO = $8/b Equilibrium PG = $2/mcf and Q = 20 Tcf Price ceiling set at $1 This information can be seen graphically: Chapter 9 20

($/mcf) S D B A 2.40 C The gain to consumers is rectangle A minus triangle B, and the loss to producers is rectangle A plus triangle C. 2.00 18 (Pmax)1.00 5 10 15 20 25 30 Quantity (Tcf) Chapter 9 25

Measuring the Impact of Price Controls 1 Tcf = 1 billion mcf If QD = 18, then P = $2.40 [18 = -5PG (8)] A = (18 billion mcf) x ($1/mcf) = $18 billion B = (1/2) x (2 b. mcf) x ($0.40/mcf) = $0.4 billion C = (1/2) x (2 b. mcf) x ($1/mcf) = $1 billion Chapter 9 26

Measuring the Impact of Price Controls 1975 Change in consumer surplus = A - B = = $17.6 billion Change in producer surplus = -A - C = = -$19.0 billion Chapter 9 27

Measuring the Impact of Price Controls 1975 dollars, deadweight loss = -B - C = = -$1.4 billion In 2000 dollars, the deadweight loss is more than $4 billion per year. Chapter 9 28

The Efficiency of a Competitive Market
When do competitive markets generate an inefficient allocation of resources or market failure? 1) Externalities Costs or benefits that do not show up as part of the market price (e.g. pollution) Chapter 9 30

When do competitive markets generate an inefficient allocation of resources or market failure? 2) Lack of Information Imperfect information prevents consumers from making utility- maximizing decisions. Chapter 9 30

Government intervention in these markets can increase efficiency. Government intervention without a market failure creates inefficiency or deadweight loss. Chapter 9 31

Welfare Loss When Price Is Held Below Market-Clearing Level
Q0 P1 Q1 A B C When price is regulated to be no higher than P1, the deadweight loss given by triangles B and C results. Chapter 9 Quantity 34

Welfare Loss When Price Is Held Above Market-Clearing Level
Q3 A B C Q2 What would the deadweight loss be if QS = Q2? When price is regulated to be no lower than P2 only Q3 will be demanded. The deadweight loss is given by triangles B and C Price S D P0 Q0 Chapter 9 Quantity 37

The Market for Human Kidneys
The 1984 National Organ Transplantation Act prohibits the sale of organs for transplantation. Analyzing the Impact of the Act Supply: QS = 8, P If P = $20,000, Q = 12,000 Demand: QD = 16, P Chapter 9 38

The Market for Kidneys, and Effects of the 1984 Organ Transplantation Act
The 1984 act effectively makes the price zero. Price S D 12,000 $20,000 $40,000 B If consumers received kidneys at no cost, their gain would be given by rectangle A less triangle B. D Rectangles A and D measure the total value of kidneys when supply is constrained. A C The loss to suppliers is given by rectangle A and triangle C. $30,000 $10,000 Quantity 4,000 8,000 Chapter 9 43

The act limits the quantity supplied (donations) to 8,000. Loss to supplier surplus: A + C = (8,000)($20,000) + (1/2)(4,000)($20,000) = $200/m. Chapter 9 44

Gain to recipients: A - B = (8,000)($20,000) - (1/2)(4,000)($20,000) = $120/m. Deadweight loss: B + C or $200 million - $120 million = $80 million Chapter 9 45

Other Inefficiency Cost 1) Allocation is not necessarily to those who value the kidney’s the most. 2) Price may increase to $40,000, the equilibrium price, with hospitals getting the price. Chapter 9 46

Arguments in favor of prohibiting the sale of organs: 1) Imperfect information about donor’s health and screening Chapter 9 47

Arguments in favor of prohibiting the sale of organs: 2) Unfair to allocate according to the ability to pay Holding price below equilibrium will create shortages Organs versus artificial substitutes Chapter 9 48

Minimum Prices Periodically government policy seeks to raise prices above market-clearing levels. We will investigate this by looking at a price floor and the minimum wage. Chapter 9 49

Price Minimum Pmin Q3 Q2 S D P0 Q0 If producers produce
Q2, the amount Q2 - Q3 will go unsold. Price S D P0 Q0 B A The change in producer surplus will be A - C - D. Producers may be worse off. C D Quantity Chapter 9 52

Firms are not allowed to results in unemployment.
The Minimum Wage A wmin L1 L2 Unemployment Firms are not allowed to pay less than wmin. This results in unemployment. w S D w0 L0 B The deadweight loss is given by triangles B and C. C L Chapter 9 55

Airline Regulation During the airline industry in the U.S. changed dramatically. Deregulation lead to major changes in the industry. Some airlines merged or went out of business as new airlines entered the industry. Chapter 9 56

Effect of Airline Regulation by the Civil Aeronautics Board
Q1 Pmin Q2 Prior to deregulation price was at Pmin and QD = Q1 and Qs = Q2. S D P0 Q0 Price Q3 D Area D is the cost of unsold output. B A C After deregulation: Prices fell to PO. The change in consumer surplus is A + B. Quantity Chapter 9 59

Airline Industry Data Number of carriers Passenger load factor(%) Passenger-mile rate (constant 1995 dollars) Real cost index (1995=100) Real cost index corrected for fuel cost increases 60

Airline Industry Data Airline industry data show:
1) Long-run adjustment as the number of carriers increased and prices decreased 2) Higher load factors indicating more efficiency Chapter 9 61

Airline Industry Data Airline industry data show: 3) Falling rates
4) Real cost increased slightly (adjusted fuel cost) 5) Large welfare gain Chapter 9 62

Price Supports and Production Quotas
Much of agricultural policy is based on a system of price supports. This is support price is set above the equilibrium price and the government buys the surplus. This is often combined with incentives to reduce or restrict production Chapter 9 63

Price Supports S D P0 Q0 D + Qg Qg B D Ps Q2 Q1 Price
A To maintain a price Ps the government buys quantity Qg . The change in consumer surplus = -A - B, and the change in producer surplus is A + B + D Ps Q2 Q1 Quantity Chapter 9 66

Price Supports D + Qg Qg S Ps P0 D Q1 Q0 Q2 The cost to the
government is the speckled rectangle Ps(Q2-Q1) Price D + Qg Qg S Ps Total welfare loss D-(Q2-Q1)ps A B D P0 Total Welfare Loss D Q1 Q0 Q2 Quantity Chapter 9 66

Price Supports Question:
Is there a more efficient way to increase farmer’s income by A + B + D? Chapter 9 68

The government can also cause the price of a good to rise by reducing supply. Chapter 9 69

What is the impact of: 1) Controlling entry into the taxicab market? 2) Controlling the number of liquor licenses? Chapter 9 69

Supply Restrictions PS S’ Q1 D P0 Q0 S Supply restricted to Q1 Price
Supply shifts to Q1 Price D P0 Q0 S B A CS reduced by A + B Change in PS = A - C Deadweight loss = BC C D Quantity Chapter 9 71

Supply Restrictions PS S’ Q1 D P0 Q0 S Ps is maintained with Price
and incentive Cost to government = B + C + D Price D P0 Q0 S A B D C Quantity Chapter 9 71

Supply Restrictions = A - C + B + C + D = A + B + D.
The change in consumer and producer surplus is the same as with price supports. = -A - B + A + B + D - B - C - D = -B - C. B A Quantity Price D P0 Q0 PS S S’ C Chapter 9 73

Supply Restrictions Questions:
How could the government reduce the cost and still subsidize the farmer? Which is more costly: supports or acreage limitations? B A Quantity Price D P0 Q0 PS S S’ C Chapter 9 74

Supporting the Price of Wheat
1981 Supply: Qs = 1, P Demand: QD = 3, P Equilibrium price and quantity was $3.46 and 2,630 million bushels Chapter 9 75

1981 Price support was set at $3.70 QD + QG = QDT = 3, P + QG QS = QD 1, P = 3, P + QG QG = 506P -1,750 QG = (506)(3.70) -175=122 million bushels Chapter 9 76

The Wheat Market in 1981 S P0 = $3.70 2,566 2,688 A C Qg
B C Qg AB consumer loss ABC producer gain Price S D P0 = $3.46 2,630 1,800 D + Qg By buying 122 million bushels the government increased the market-clearing price. Quantity Chapter 9 80

1981 The change in consumer surplus = (-A -B) A = ( )(2,566) = $616 million B = (1/2)( )(2,630-2,566) = $8 million Change in consumer surplus: -$624 million. Chapter 9 77

1981 Cost to the government: $3.70 x 122 million bushels = $452 million Total cost = $ = $1,076 million Total gain = A + B + C = $638 million Government also paid 30 cents/bushel = $806 million Chapter 9 78

In 1985, export demand fell and the market clearing price of wheat fell to $1.80/bushel. Chapter 9 81

1985 Supply: QS = 1, P 1986 Demand: QD = P QS = QD at $1.80 and 2,232 million bushels PS = $3.20 To maintain $3.20/bushel a production quota of 2,425 bushels was imposed Chapter 9 84

1985 Government Purchase: 2,425 = 2, P + QG QG = P P = $ the support price QG = ($3.20) = 466 million bushels Chapter 9 85

The Wheat Market in 1985 S’ S QS D + QS D P0 = $3.20 1,959 2,425 Price
To increase the price to $3.20, the government bought 466 million bushels and imposed a production quota of 2,425 bushels. D + QS S’ P0 = $3.20 1,959 2,425 QS Price 1,800 S D P0 = $1.80 2,232 Quantity Chapter 9 83

1985 Government Purchase: Government cost = $3.20 x 466 = $1,491million 80 cent subsidy = .80 x 2,425 = $1,940 million Total cost = $3.5 billion Chapter 9 86

Question: What is the change in consumer and producer surplus? Chapter 9 86

1996 Freedom to Farm Reduces price supports and quotas until 2003 when they go back into effect under the 1996 law. Chapter 9 88

1998 Wheat Market P = $2.65 QD = P QS = P Q = 2493 Government subsidy of .66/bushel or $1.6 billion Chapter 9 88

Import Quotas and Tariffs
Many countries use import quotas and tariffs to keep the domestic price of a product above world levels Chapter 9 89

Import Tariff or Quota That Eliminates Imports
D P0 Q0 S In a free market, the domestic price equals the world price PW. Price QS QD PW Imports A B C By eliminating imports, the price is increased to PO. The gain is area A. The loss to consumers A + B + C, so the deadweight loss is B + C. How high would a tariff have to be to get the same result? Quantity Chapter 9 92

Import Tariff or Quota (general case)
The increase in price can be achieved by a quota or a tariff. Area A is again the gain to domestic producers. The loss to consumers is A + B + C + D. D S Price D C B QS QD Q’S Q’D A P* Pw Quantity Chapter 9 94

If a tariff is used the government gains D, so the net domestic product loss is B + C. If a quota is used instead, rectangle D becomes part of the profits of foreign producers, and the net domestic loss is B + C + D. D C B QS QD Q’S Q’D A P* Pw Quantity S Price Chapter 9 94

Question: Would the U.S. be better off or worse off with a quota instead of a tariff? (e.g. Japanese import restrictions in the 1980s) D S Price D C B QS QD Q’S Q’D A P* Pw Quantity Chapter 9 95

The Sugar Quota The world price of sugar has been as low as 4 cents per pound, while in the U.S. the price has been cents per pound. Chapter 9 96

The Sugar Quota The Impact of a Restricted Market (1997)
U.S. production = 15.6 billion pounds U.S. consumption = 21.1 billion pounds U.S. price = 22 cents/pound World price = 11 cents/pound Chapter 9 97

The Sugar Quota The Impact of a Restricted Market U.S. ES = 1.54
U.S. ED = -0.3 U.S. supply: QS = P U.S. demand: QD = P P = .23 and Q = 13.7 billion pounds Chapter 9 98

Sugar Quota in 1997 SUS DUS D A B Price PW = 11 PUS = 21.9 C QS = 4.0
(cents/lb.) PW = 11 PUS = 21.9 C D B QS = 4.0 Q’S = 15.6 Q’d = 21.1 Qd = 24.2 A The cost of the quotas to consumers was A + B + C + D, or $2.4b. The gain to producers was area A, or $1b. 20 16 11 8 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 Quantity (billions of pounds) 100

Sugar Quota in 1997 SUS DUS D A B Price PW = 11 PUS = 21.9 C 20 16 11
(cents/lb.) PW = 11 PUS = 21.9 B D C Rectangle D was the gain to foreign producers who obtained quota allotments, or $600 million. Triangles B and C represent the deadweight loss of $800 million. 20 A 16 11 8 4 Qd = 24.2 5 10 15 20 25 30 Quantity (billions of pounds) QS = 4.0 Q’S = 15.6 Q’d = 21.1 100

The Impact of a Tax or Subsidy
The burden of a tax (or the benefit of a subsidy) falls partly on the consumer and partly on the producer. We will consider a specific tax which is a tax of a certain amount of money per unit sold. Chapter 9 103

Incidence of a SpecificTax
Q1 PS Pb t Pb is the price (including the tax) paid by buyers. PS is the price sellers receive, net of the tax. The burden of the tax is split evenly. Price D S B D A Buyers lose A + B, and sellers lose D + C, and the government earns A + D in revenue. The deadweight loss is B + C. C P0 Q0 Quantity Chapter 9 106

Incidence of a Specific Tax
Four conditions that must be satisfied after the tax is in place: 1) Quantity sold and Pb must be on the demand line: QD = QD(Pb) 2) Quantity sold and PS must be on the supply line: QS = QS(PS) Chapter 9 107

Incidence of a Specific Tax
Four conditions that must be satisfied after the tax is in place: 3) QD = QS 4) Pb - PS = tax Chapter 9 108

Impact of a Tax Depends on Elasticities of Supply and Demand
Burden on Buyer Burden on Seller S D Price Price Q1 Pb PS t Q1 Pb PS t Q0 P0 Quantity Quantity 110

The Impact of a Tax or Subsidy
Pass-through fraction ES/(ES - Ed) For example, when demand is perfectly inelastic (Ed = 0), the pass-through fraction is 1, and all the tax is borne by the consumer. Chapter 9 111

The Effects of a Tax or Subsidy
A subsidy can be analyzed in much the same way as a tax. It can be treated as a negative tax. The seller’s price exceeds the buyer’s price. Chapter 9 112

upon the elasticities of
Subsidy Price D S Q1 PS Pb s Like a tax, the benefit of a subsidy is split between buyers and sellers, depending upon the elasticities of supply and demand. P0 Q0 Quantity Chapter 9 114

Subsidy With a subsidy (s), the selling price Pb is below the subsidized price PS so that: s = PS - Pb Chapter 9 115

Subsidy The benefit of the subsidy depends upon Ed /ES.
If the ratio is small, most of the benefit accrues to the consumer. If the ratio is large, the producer benefits most. Chapter 9 115

A Tax on Gasoline Measuring the Impact of a 50 Cent Gasoline Tax
Intermediate-run EP of demand = -0.5 QD = P EP of supply = 0.4 QS = P QS = QD at $1 and 100 billion gallons per year (bg/yr) Chapter 9 116

A Tax on Gasoline With a 50 cent tax QD = 150 - 50Pb = 60 + 40PS = QS
(PS+ .50) = PS PS = .72 Pb = .5 + PS Pb = $1.22 Chapter 9 117

A Tax on Gasoline With a 50 cent tax Q = 150 -(50)(1.22) = 89 bg/yr
Q falls by 11% Chapter 9 118

Impact of a 50 Cent Gasoline Tax
D 60 Price ($ per gallon) 1.50 D A Lost Consumer Surplus Lost Producer PS = .72 Pb = 1.22 The annual revenue from the tax is .50(89) or $44.5 billion. The buyer pays 22 cents of the tax, and the producer pays 28 cents. 89 t = 0.50 11 100 P0 = 1.00 .50 Quantity (billion gallons per year) 50 150 Chapter 9 122

Impact of a 50 Cent Gasoline Tax
D 60 Price ($ per gallon) 1.50 D A Lost Consumer Surplus Lost Producer PS = .72 Pb = 1.22 89 t = 0.50 11 100 P0 = 1.00 Deadweight loss = $2.75 billion/yr .50 Quantity (billion gallons per year) 50 150 Chapter 9 122

Summary Simple models of supply and demand can be used to analyze a wide variety of government policies. In each case, consumer and producer surplus are used to evaluate the gains and losses to consumers and producers. Chapter 9 123

Summary When government imposes a tax or subsidy, price usually does not rise or fall by the full amount of the tax or subsidy. Government intervention generally leads to a deadweight loss. Chapter 9 124

Summary Government intervention in a competitive market is not always a bad thing. Chapter 9 124

The Analysis of Competitive Markets
End of Chapter 9 The Analysis of Competitive Markets 1

The Analysis of Competitive Markets

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