1. Introduction ． The Pacific ． Tok Pisin ． Hawaii ． Fiji

3. The Pacific A large number of indigenous languages, Asian mainland languages, half a dozen European languages and a number of pidgins and creoles. A large number of indigenous languages, Asian mainland languages, half a dozen European languages and a number of pidgins and creoles. The Austronesians brought many varieties of Austronesian langauges. The Austronesians brought many varieties of Austronesian langauges. English is the official language. English is the official language.

4. Language contact in the Pacific German in the Pacific The first German trading depot was established on Samoa in 1856. The first German trading depot was established on Samoa in 1856. Tok Pisin has the greatest German influence. Tok Pisin has the greatest German influence. Gaden in Tok Pisin(German Garten and English garden). Gaden in Tok Pisin(German Garten and English garden).

5. French in the Pacific The French were relative latecomers to the pacific. English in the Pacific A number of varieties of English can be found in the Pacific: Australian, American, and British varieties in addition to English- based pidgins and creoles.

6. ． First brought by Captain Cook. ． The best documented case of English language influence in Polynesia is Hawaii. Contact languages in the Pacific ． The earliest pidgins in Oceania were Portuguese-based. ． Tok Pisin and Hawaii Pidgin/Creole English are the best documented Pacific pidgins and creoles.

7. Extent of nativisation of English in the Pacific Papua New Guinea English had develop distinctive patterns of its own. Papua New Guinea English had develop distinctive patterns of its own. Damages, harms, informations, equipemtns. Damages, harms, informations, equipemtns.

8. Attitudes to English in the Pacific Many reflect their failure to regard pidgin English as a real language. Many reflect their failure to regard pidgin English as a real language. Europeans commonly think pidgin English is just a special form of English. Europeans commonly think pidgin English is just a special form of English. It is likely that ambivalence towards the use of and role of English via Tok Pisin will continue for some time to come. It is likely that ambivalence towards the use of and role of English via Tok Pisin will continue for some time to come.

9. Gaps in research The history of research on pidgin, creole and indigenous languages of the Pacific has been largely dictated by non-scholarly concerns. The history of research on pidgin, creole and indigenous languages of the Pacific has been largely dictated by non-scholarly concerns. English language will play an increasingly important role as a means of cross-cultural communication within and outside the Pacific. English language will play an increasingly important role as a means of cross-cultural communication within and outside the Pacific.

10. Tok Pisin is one of the three national languages of Papua New Guinea. It is a form of Melanesian Pidgin English that was developed in the early 1800's as a result of increased travel and economic activity between the Melanesians and Europeans, and is still used today as one of the most dominant and universal languages in the country of Papua New Guinea. Tok Pisin is one of the three national languages of Papua New Guinea. It is a form of Melanesian Pidgin English that was developed in the early 1800's as a result of increased travel and economic activity between the Melanesians and Europeans, and is still used today as one of the most dominant and universal languages in the country of Papua New Guinea. In a country that is said to have over over 800 languages still in existence, Tok Pisin is and integral part of communication for almost all native citizens. In a country that is said to have over over 800 languages still in existence, Tok Pisin is and integral part of communication for almost all native citizens. Tok Pisin

11. Most studies of creolisation have emphasised the massive qualitative changes accompanying the acquisition of a pidgin as a native language by a new generation of children. Most studies of creolisation have emphasised the massive qualitative changes accompanying the acquisition of a pidgin as a native language by a new generation of children.

12. More numerous and, arguably, equally important, are instances where the expansion of a pidgin occurs with a generation of adult speakers who change their primary language as they migrate to the new urban centres of the developing nations. More numerous and, arguably, equally important, are instances where the expansion of a pidgin occurs with a generation of adult speakers who change their primary language as they migrate to the new urban centres of the developing nations.

13. A pidgin language such as Tok Pisin offers a form of verbal interaction without the restrictions and taboos found in male- female discourse in traditional societies. A pidgin language such as Tok Pisin offers a form of verbal interaction without the restrictions and taboos found in male- female discourse in traditional societies. Speech is typically initiated and dominated by males in these texts and that the relationship of males with females is seen in terms of metaphors such as consumption of food. Speech is typically initiated and dominated by males in these texts and that the relationship of males with females is seen in terms of metaphors such as consumption of food.

14. The data presented here illustrate the continued growth of Tok Pisin resulting from its extension to new domains and functions in non-traditional settings. The data presented here illustrate the continued growth of Tok Pisin resulting from its extension to new domains and functions in non-traditional settings.

15. Sociolinguistic variation and language attitudes in Hawaii Hawaii, with a population of about one million, is the only American state in which no single ethnic group is a numerical majority, and where most of the people are of Asian and pacific rather than European or African origin. Hawaii, with a population of about one million, is the only American state in which no single ethnic group is a numerical majority, and where most of the people are of Asian and pacific rather than European or African origin.

16. Hawaii ’ s cultural diversity is largely the result of massive labour importation, triggered by the development of sugar plantations by north Americans during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Hawaii ’ s cultural diversity is largely the result of massive labour importation, triggered by the development of sugar plantations by north Americans during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

17. The emergence of a creole continuum On the plantations, which were first worked primarily by native Hawaiians, a pidginised Hawaiian developed by the end of the nineteenth century. On the plantations, which were first worked primarily by native Hawaiians, a pidginised Hawaiian developed by the end of the nineteenth century. This later gave way to a pidginised English – Hawaii Pidgin English (HPE) This later gave way to a pidginised English – Hawaii Pidgin English (HPE)

18. Hawaii Creole English (HCE) was initially created by the first Hawaii-born children of the plantation communities and further developed by subsequent generations of local people. Hawaii Creole English (HCE) was initially created by the first Hawaii-born children of the plantation communities and further developed by subsequent generations of local people. Whereas HPE speakers typically have an accent influenced by their first language, HCE speakers ’ accent is that of their first language. Whereas HPE speakers typically have an accent influenced by their first language, HCE speakers ’ accent is that of their first language.

19. Attitudes HCE and SE Negative attitude toward HCE and a positive one toward SE. Negative attitude toward HCE and a positive one toward SE. HCE is low academic achievement and low socioeconomic status. HCE is low academic achievement and low socioeconomic status.

20. HCE in the classroom Hawaii Board of Education (BOE) formulated a policy on ‘ Standard English and Oral Communication, ’ a preliminary version of which mandated that ‘ Standard English would be the mode of oral communication for students and staff in the classroom. Hawaii Board of Education (BOE) formulated a policy on ‘ Standard English and Oral Communication, ’ a preliminary version of which mandated that ‘ Standard English would be the mode of oral communication for students and staff in the classroom.

21. Several months after the BOE ’ s action, an informal survey of 986 graduating students at public and private high schools across the state was conducted by a major Honolulu newspaper to gauge student sentiment about the role of HCE in the classroom. Several months after the BOE ’ s action, an informal survey of 986 graduating students at public and private high schools across the state was conducted by a major Honolulu newspaper to gauge student sentiment about the role of HCE in the classroom. Whereas only 26 per cent of the private school students surveyed felt that HCE use should be allowed in school, 54 per cent of the public school students supported this idea. Whereas only 26 per cent of the private school students surveyed felt that HCE use should be allowed in school, 54 per cent of the public school students supported this idea.

22. Students attending rural public schools show much stronger loyalty to HCE than the urban private school students from middle and upper-income families. Students attending rural public schools show much stronger loyalty to HCE than the urban private school students from middle and upper-income families.

23. Attitudes and sociolinguistic variation Negative stereotypes of HCE and positive stereotypes of SE are still held by many in the community. Negative stereotypes of HCE and positive stereotypes of SE are still held by many in the community. The recent educational and legal controversies seem to have sharpened the community ’ s sense of HCE as a marker of local identity. The recent educational and legal controversies seem to have sharpened the community ’ s sense of HCE as a marker of local identity.

24. None of those who argued against the BOE ’ s policy denied the importance of acquiring academic English and, particularly, literacy in SE. None of those who argued against the BOE ’ s policy denied the importance of acquiring academic English and, particularly, literacy in SE. Public policy can no longer ignore the linguistic systematicity and cultural significance of HCE. Public policy can no longer ignore the linguistic systematicity and cultural significance of HCE. To the extent that speakers choose to accentuate their localness linguistically, there will be some degree of refocusing of HCE. To the extent that speakers choose to accentuate their localness linguistically, there will be some degree of refocusing of HCE.

25. Variation in Fiji English English is the national language of Fiji, used in government, business, and education. It is also the lingua franca among the many ethnic groups of the country. English is the national language of Fiji, used in government, business, and education. It is also the lingua franca among the many ethnic groups of the country. A distinctive local variety of English is characterised by certain non-standard linguistic features. A distinctive local variety of English is characterised by certain non-standard linguistic features.

26. The Fiji English, is a linguistic continuum with variation according to the frequency of occurrence of these nonstandard features, here called markers. The Fiji English, is a linguistic continuum with variation according to the frequency of occurrence of these nonstandard features, here called markers.

27. Differences between groups The different frequencies of occurrence of the markers may reflect stylistic differences depending on the situational factors of setting and topic. The different frequencies of occurrence of the markers may reflect stylistic differences depending on the situational factors of setting and topic. One would expect a lower occurrence of the markers in more formal situations. One would expect a lower occurrence of the markers in more formal situations. Girls were in the more formal environment of a school whereas the boys were in a playground. Girls were in the more formal environment of a school whereas the boys were in a playground.

28. One of the most significant social differences between the two groups of subjects may be level of education. One of the most significant social differences between the two groups of subjects may be level of education. Certain non standard features may occur less frequently in the speech of the girls because of their higher level of education. But other nonstandard features occur more frequently because they may have become more standard features of the colloquial informal variety. Certain non standard features may occur less frequently in the speech of the girls because of their higher level of education. But other nonstandard features occur more frequently because they may have become more standard features of the colloquial informal variety.

29. The frequency of occurrence of some of the linguistic markers which identify BFE may be changing over time while others remain constant. The frequency of occurrence of some of the linguistic markers which identify BFE may be changing over time while others remain constant.